Introduction
Dear teacher:
During your first year, you have been exposed to basic concepts of writing in English. By now, you certainly master the essential skills of sentence and paragraph construction. You can recognize the different sentence patterns and you can link between sentences to form paragraphs with respect to the rules of punctuation, logic, unity and coherence.
The concern of this year’s course, however, is of a larger scope: the composition.
The ******* of written expression in the second year of your curriculum will expose you to the different types of composition development. You will be informed about the techniques to adopt and the fallacies to avoid. You will also be provided with a sample for each type of development.
A thorough study of these samples will simplify the understanding of the processes of development to you, and may inspire you in the realization of the activities at the end of each chapter.
Keep in mind that these are only guidelines and that most of the work will be realized in the form of written papers.
Writing is practice. Therefore, the section of activities should be tackled seriously. You ought to manage securing enough time for the writing activities to ensure an exploitation of the data provided hereby.
Good Luck.
******* OF THE COURSE
Term 01:
- General review of the different types of construction.
- Review of the English paragraph
♦The topic sentence.
♦Unity.
♦Coherence.
- Introducing the English Composition.
♦The thesis statement.
♦The composition outline.
♦Types of introduction.
♦Developmental paragraphs.
♦Paragraph linking.
♦Concluding the composition.
Term02:
- The composition developed by examples.
- The composition developed by comparison and contrast.
- The composition developed by definition.
- The argumentative composition.
Term03:
- The composition developed by cause and effect.
- The elliptical clause.
- The composition developed by classification..
- Letter writing (formal and informal letters).
General Review of the Different Types of Constructions
-The Sentence:
A common definition of a sentence is “a complete thought that is marked by a capital letter at the beginning and a full stop at the end”.
A sentence contains a subject and a predicate.
Examples:
Subject Predicate
The cat smiled
The cat smiled enigmatically at Alice
A sentence can stand alone.
-Sentence Types:
There are four basic sentence types: Statements- commands- questions- and exclamations.
1- Statements:
They are also referred to as declarative sentences or declaratives. The function of statements is to convey information.
Example: My dog has buried his bones in the lawn.
2- Commands:
They are referred to as interrogatives or interrogative sentences. There are four main types of questions:
♦Yes/no Questions:
These sentences expect “yes” or “no” for an answer.
Examples:
-Is your brother still at school?
- Would you like some tea?
♦”Wh “Questions:
These sentences begin with a “wh” word: what, which, when, who, why, where, how. They cannot be answered with “yes” or “no”.
Examples:
-Why is your shirt dirty?
- What do you think about casinos?
♦Alternative Questions:
They are very similar to “yes/ no”, but they offer a choice of answer.
Examples:
-Did it happen on Monday or Tuesday?
- Should I ring up, or should I write?
♦Tag Questions:
Tag questions are statements with a question tag at the end. Tag questions, a peculiarity of English, are usually spoken rather than written.
Examples:
- It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?
- He can swim well, can’t he?
- It wasn’t much of a film, was it?
The form of tag questions is quite regular:
-If the statement is positive, the tag will be negative.
Example: He is an inspiring teacher, isn’t he?
- If the statement is negative, the tag will be positive.
Example: He isn’t an inspiring teacher, is he?
♦Exclamations:
They are also referred to as exclamatives or exclamative sentences. They are used to express strong feelings. They can begin with “what” or “how”.
Examples:
-What a naughty dog he is!
- What an amazing game that was!
- How well everyone played!
- Clauses:
A clause is a group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate. A clause is either a whole sentence or in effect -a sentence within a sentence.
Clauses are often contrasted with phrases, which do not express complete thoughts through combinations of subjects and predicates. Phrases generally do not contain verbs except as verbals ( gerunds, participles and infinitives).
Examples:
-I didn’t know that the dog ran through the yard.
(through the yard) is not a clause, but a phrase since it has no subject or verb.
(The dog ran through the yard) is a clause; it is a whole sentence contained within a larger sentence.
-Categories of clauses:
There are two basic categories: Independent clauses and Dependent clauses.
♦Independent clauses:
They are also referred to as main clauses, or coordinate clauses. An independent clause can stand by itself as a grammatically viable simple sentence. Multiple independent clauses can be joined (usually with a comma and a coordinating conjunction) to form a compound sentence.
Examples:
-I am a bus driver. (simple sentence).
-I drive a bus. (simple sentence).
-I am a bus driver, and I drive a bus. (compound sentence).
-I want to be an astronaut, but I haven’t gotten my diploma (compound sentence).
♦Dependent clauses:
A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence. It usually begins with a subordinating conjunction or in the case of an adverb or an adjective clause, a relative pronoun. A sentence with an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is referred to as a compound complex sentence.
Examples:
-My sister cried because she scraped her knee. (complex sentence).
-When they told me I won the contest, I cried, but I didn’t faint. (compound complex sentence)
-Types of dependent clauses:
Dependent clauses are often classified by their part of speech:
- A noun clause functions as a noun.
- An adjective clause functions as an adjective.
- An adverb clause functions as an adverb.
Examples:
-That the kid was making so much money bothered me. (a noun clause is the subject of bothered)
-Her eyes were a shade of blue that reminded me of the sea. (an adjective clause modifying a shade of blue).
- I have a tendency to hyperventilate when I’m upset. (adverb clause modifying the entire main clause).
-Phrases:
A phrase is a group of related words, without subject and predicate, functioning as a verb, a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Phrases are generally classified as:
♦Verb phrases.
♦Prepositional phrases. They function as adjectives or adverbs.
♦Participial phrases. They are used as adjectives.
♦Gerund phrases. They are used as nouns
♦Infinitive phrases. They are often used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs
REVIEW OF THE ENGLISH PARAGRAPH
- The paragraph :
A paragraph is defined as a group pf related sentences which express an idea.
The paragraph could be seen as division of a longer piece of writing. Another way to see the paragraph is to think of it as a group of logically related sentences composed of unified parts, based on a single idea or to view it as a kind of extended sentence.
There are two types of paragraphs: topical and special.
-The topical paragraph discusses an idea.
-The special paragraph functions as an introduction, a conclusion or a transition in an essay.
For a paragraph to be good, it must display four criteria: completeness, unity, order, and coherence. Unity and coherence are going to be discussed later in this chapter.
-The topic sentence:
The topic sentence is a sentence which introduces the topic of a paragraph. It also expresses an idea or an opinion about the topic. It is also called the controlling idea. It controls the aspects to be discussed in the paragraph.
Characteristics of the topic sentence:
There are four characteristics:
-It must contain a summary of the paragraph and the writer’s opinion, and it is not to address the reader directly by saying:” In this paragraph, I am going to…”.
-It must deal only with one idea.
-It must be so general that it does lead to discussion.
-It must be a writer’s own product, not ready made. That is to say, it is not a quotation.
Example of a good topic sentence:
“Handwriting can tell a lot about people’s personalities”.
This topic sentence fulfills the four criteria:
-It summarizes the ******* of a paragraph.
-It covers one idea which is how can handwriting reveal people’s personalities.
-It is a topic that can lead to discussion.
-It is a writer’s own product.
Position of the topic sentence in the paragraph:
●At the beginning:
This is the most common format in paragraph writing, when the topic sentence is the first sentence in the paragraph followed by supporting detail. Generally, beginners and inexperienced writers are advised to place their topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph to limit and direct their thoughts.
●At the end:
Sometimes the topic sentence is placed at the end of the paragraph. In writing such a paragraph, the writer starts with listing all the evidence that suits the topic and ends with a topic sentence as a conclusion.
●In the middle:
The paragraph starts with supporting details which are summed up in a topic sentence in the middle, and then it is further illustrated by more examples and details.
●At the beginning and the end:
A writer states his or her topic sentence at the beginning and supports it with details, then restates it at the end of the paragraph to confirm the idea of the topic sentence in case of deviation.
●At the beginning and in the middle:
The topic sentence is stated at the beginning of the paragraph and supported by brief details, then restated in the middle. After that it is further developed with more details.
Note:
Sometimes the topic sentence is not stated explicitly. This does not mean that the writer’s paragraph is not unified, but the controlling idea is kept in his mind when developing the paragraph. Therefore, beginners are not advised to use implied topic sentences, because they may go far from their central idea. In fact, an explicitly stated topic sentence ensures unity within a paragraph.
-Unity:
Just as a sentence is a group of words conveying a complete thought, so a paragraph is a group of sentences advancing the thought somewhere further. The fact that the English paragraph constitutes a separate unit of thought is its most important quality. In composing a paragraph, a writer discusses only one topic or one aspect of a topic. This characteristic is known as unity , or singleness of purpose.
Because an English paragraph concentrates on a single idea, all the facts, examples and reasons used to develop that idea must be relevant.
-Coherence:
A basic feature of the English paragraph is that it normally follows a straight line of development. The paragraph often begins with a statement of its central idea, known as the topic sentence, followed by a series of subdivisions of the central idea. These subdivisions have the purpose of developing the topic sentence. The typically straight line of development of an English paragraph is the basis of its particular type of coherence. An English paragraph is coherent when its ideas are clearly related to each other in orderly sequence. Each sentence in such a paragraph should naturally grow out of each previous sentence in developing the central idea. There should be a sense of movement or flow, a going forward and building on what has been said before. You may hold your reader’s interest if a paragraph contains an occasional obscure, weak, or repetitious sentence, but too many such paragraphs could cause the reader to give up.
Achieving coherence:
There are many ways to achieve coherence, the most important ones are listed below.
●One way to achieve coherence is to arrange a paragraph’s details in a systematic way that is appropriate for the subject matter. Many writers place their supporting details in order of importance, starting with the least important detail and ending with the most important one.
Paragraph development by order of importance is a helpful way to gain coherence when you are writing an opinion or an argument.
Paragraphs are also developed :
♦chronologically: mentioning events in the order they occur in time.
♦Spatially: moving from discussing one ******** to discussing another in some orderly sequence.
♦From the general to the specific: deduction.
♦From the specific to the general: induction.
●Another way to achieve coherence is to add various transitions –words or phrases that connect one idea to another idea.
INTRODUCING THE ENGLISH COMPOSITION
-The Essay:
An essay is a combination of paragraphs to develop one central idea which is usually stated in the so called thesis statement. It is composed of topical and special paragraphs. The special paragraphs are the introduction and the conclusion. The topical paragraphs are the developmental paragraphs. That is to say, those which develop the central idea expressing causes, effects, reasons, examples, processes, classification, comparison and contrast.
-The Thesis Statement:
A thesis statement in an essay functions like a topic sentence in a paragraph. It states the writer’s central idea or thesis. The thesis appears at the beginning of an essay, in the introductory paragraph. It is a straight forward expression of the writer’s intent. In order for writing to succeed, the reader needs this information. If a writer’s purpose is not stated, if a reader has to deduce it by backtracking through the composition one or more times, the reader may lose interest. The earlier you communicate your purpose in writing, the better prepared the reader will be to track the developing thought line in your paper.
The thesis statement has three main functions:
♦It limits down the topic into one idea.
♦It gives the writer’s attitudes about the topic.
♦It makes clear how the ideas are going to be arranged in the essay.
Characteristics of a good thesis statement.
A good thesis statement should be restricted, unified and precise.
-A restricted thesis statement should state all the elements that are going to be developed in the topic.
-A unified thesis statement should direct the writer to tackle a prevailing idea.
-A precise thesis statement should be stated so clearly that it does not lead to myriad interpretations. Note that a thesis statement, as its name indicates, is a statement. So, it should not take the form of a question.
THE COMPOSITION OUTLINE
The plan for an essay should be developed after the tentative phrasing of a thesis statement and before writing the first draft. It usually takes the form of an outline of the ideas and supporting details to be covered in the essay.
There are two kinds of outlines:
-The topic outline.
-The sentence outline.
The main items are identified by roman numerals, the first sublevel of items by capital letters, the third second sublevel by lower case letters, the fourth sublevel by Arabic numerals enclosed in parentheses, and the fifth sublevel by lowercase letters enclosed in parentheses. All letters and numbers at the same level are indented to fall directly under one another.
I
A.
B.
1.
2.
a.
b.
(1)
(2)
(a)
(b)
II
You will rarely need all six levels. Notice that each level is a division of the level above it . Therefore, there must be at least two items at every level because logically, a topic cannot be divided into one item. Of course, there may be more than two items at any level.
All items at the same level must be expressed in parallel grammatical structure.
Example: Incorrect:
I. Shortcuts in education
A- Study in fifteen-minute periods
B- Learning while asleep
C- Condensed books and digests
Correct II-Shortcuts in education
A- Studying in fifteen-minute period
B- Learning while sleeping
C- Reading condensed books and digests
A, B, and C are now grammatically parallel. In this case, each is a participial phrase.
-Do not use such terms as introduction, discussion section, and conclusion to label portions of the outline because these labels will not appear in the essay.
- Begin the first word of each item with a capital letter.
Example: The following outline is a topic outline of an essay entitled “Times to Slow Down”. Notice that it starts with a tentative thesis statement.. This topic outline is not written in complete sentences, so there is no end punctuation.
Thesis statement: The impatience and restlessness of Americans show in our political affairs, our educational system, and our personal relationships.
I. Adverse effects of impatience and restlessness
A. On me
B. On political affairs, the educational system, and personal relationships
II. Political affairs
A. Public issues
B. State and national campaigns
C. Local elections
III. Educational systems
A. Advertisements offering effortless learning
B. Colleges offering quick courses
IV. Relationships with friends
A. Frequent moves
B. Frequent job changes
V. Relation ships in families
A. Increasing number of one-parent family
B. Increasing number of outside activities
VI. Solution
A. Study public issues
B. Reject illusion of easy learning
C. Spend time to know each other
D. Take time to do fewer things better
The other type of outline ,the sentence outline, is recommended particularly if the essay is long or complex. A sentence outline is more thorough than a topic outline and therefore serves as a better guide to writing the first draft. Each item is written as a declarative sentence, but the sentences are not necessarily written as they will appear in the final essay.
Example:
Thesis statement: The availability and convenience of credit cards are both a blessing and a curse for consumers, but the card will continue to grow in popularity.
I- The credit card’s brief history demonstrates its enormous impact on consumer buying habits.
A. Prior to 1950, credit card purchasing was limited to gasoline and department store items.
B. In the 1950s and 1960s banks, retail chains, and other corporations issued millions of credit cards.
C. By the 1960s more than half of all American families were regularly using credit cards.
II- The rapid success of credit cards is easily understandable
A. For most Americans, even those marginally qualified credit cards were readily available.
1. In the 1960s hundreds of banks mailed out thousands of unsolicited cards to customers.
2. Department stores issued credit cards to teenagers.
B. Many card holders receive tangible as well as intangible benefits from credit cards.
1. Credit cards offer a convenient way to buy almost anything in our society.
2. Credit cards offer some card holders a sense of prestige.
III- The wide use of credit cards creates some economic disadvantages.
A. The extra costs added to goods and services because of wide use of credit cards is unfair to cash- customers.
B. Inflation is partly fueled by credit cards.
c. Uncontrolled spending leads many card holders into bankruptcy.
IV- In the future, the use of credit cards will continue to spread.
A. Debit cards will be the next evolutionary stage.
B. We may be heading toward a cashless society.
Exercise: Develop a topic outline and a sentence outline concerning the following subjects:
-Politics.
- Careers.
- Education.
TYPES OF INTRODUCTION
-The Introduction:
It is a special paragraph with which an essay opens. It prepares the readers for what is coming.
-Criteria of a good introduction:
♦It announces a writer’s central topic and identifies the controlling idea.
♦It contains some eye-catching information or an expected approach that will stimulate the reader to continue reading.
♦It includes a thesis statement.
-Selecting an introduction:
The type of introduction you select will be determined by several factors:
♦The tone of your paper (whether serious, satirical…).
♦The nature of your material.
♦The type of audience you are writing for.
Remember that the length of the introduction should be in proportion to the overall length of the composition it appears in. Most important, the ******* of the introduction should be closely related to the writer’s thesis statement.
-Types of introduction:
In the beginning of his/her paper, the writer tries to interest his/her reader in following his/her written thoughts through the conclusion.
The most frequently used possibilities for beginning compositions are listed below.
♦The thesis statement:
One of the surest ways to begin a composition is to place the thesis statement in the first paragraph.
♦A brief narration or description:
Using a brief narrative or descriptive passage as an introduction eases the reader into the main body of the composition, establishing some background and setting the mood for what is to come.
♦An anecdote:
An anecdote is a brief humorous experience or joke. Recounted in an opening paragraph it can whet a reader’s interest in what is to come.
♦Explanation of a writer’s experience with the subject:
Sometimes a writer feels the need to establish authority on a subject, particularly if the subject is a difficult or abstruse one. One of the best ways to do this is to open an essay by explaining the writer’s experience with it.
♦Startling fact:
Perhaps you have seen a motion picture or a television show that immediately caught your interest because it opened with a startling scene. A composition beginning with a startling fact can do the same thing.
♦Definition of terms:
Often a writer may need to define essential terms before launching into the main development of his composition.
♦Statistics:
Beginning a composition with statistics is a good way to gain the reader’s confidence; specific figures tend to establish the writer as an authority on the subject, or at least as someone who knows what research is all about. Though useful in general writing, statistics are the lifeblood of scientific and technical writing.
♦Vivid contrast:
One way to punch to an introduction is to put in it a strong contrast of facts or ideas.
♦Background information:
One way to begin a composition is to fill the first paragraph with necessary background material.
♦Rhetorical question:
What can a rhetorical question accomplish as an opener? One sure thing that it does is to make your reader read on to find the answer to the question you have raised.
♦Introduction of a person:
A logical way to begin writing about a person is to introduce that person.
♦Quotation:
A quotation used to begin a composition catches a reader’s attention. The reader becomes curious to know what is being said and who said it. An opening quotation should normally be related to the composition’s thesis statement.
♦Historical detail:
Another way to open an essay is to make use of an example from history.
♦Humor:
If your opening paragraph makes your reader smile or laugh, chances are the reader will still be reading by the time your conclusion rolls around.
♦Figurative ********:
Using figurative ********, a writer can often make an introduction more vivid than it otherwise might be.
Note:
Do not write aimless, dull introductions. If you have difficulty writing an interesting and pertinent introductory paragraph which contributes to the effectiveness of your whole composition, then begin with an immediate discussion of your first main point.
Exercise:
Write an introductory paragraph for each thesis statement.
1- My country has some of the most beautiful sights you will ever see.
2- Speaking a foreign ******** can create some embarrassing misunderstandings.
3- Watching television is a waste of time.
4- Americans are crazy about their pets.
5- Turning up a car is not as difficult as some people think.
6- The New Year is one of the happiest occasions.
DEVELOPMENTAL PARAGRAPHS
The developmental paragraphs are the discussion section of an essay. It is at this level that you may develop the idea advanced in the thesis statement.
Sometimes it is difficult to choose a method of development. However, developing an essay depends largely on the topic itself.
-Methods of development of an English composition:
♦Essay developed by examples:
This type of development calls for explanation and illustration through examples. The number of examples depends on the topic. Some topics need several examples to be clarified, while others can be clearly developed with three or four examples only.
♦Essay developed by comparison and contrast:
Sometimes the best way to explain something is to compare and or contrast it to something else. The process of comparing and contrasting generally depends on the items. If the items are not complex and not detailed, it is preferable to tackle them separately. However, if the items are complex, they are to be developed in pairs focusing each time on a point of similarity or difference.
♦Essay developed by definition:
There are two types of definitions: ‘the logical definition’ which is generally a brief dictionary definition of an item, and ‘the extended definition’. The latter is used in an essay. An item can be defined by stating its background, listing its various elements or by negation. Another way to define an item is by using the following devices: comparison and contrast, process, cause and effect and logical division or classification.
♦Essay developed by cause and effect:
In an essay developed by cause and effect, the writer is supposed to discuss why something happens, that is to say, the causes. The causes can be classified into two types: immediate and remote. The former are easily uncovered because their effect occurs immediately. The latter are not easily discovered because the causes take place earlier.
There are three ways for developing a causal analysis. The first way is to describe an action or event then to state its effects. The second way is to begin with an action or event then to present its causes. The third way is to demonstrate a causal relationship between them, that is to say, how one is the cause or the effect of another.
♦Essay developed by logical division or classification:
In an essay developed by logical division, information is grouped into categories that share similar characteristics. Logical division should be consistent (to classify categories on the same basis) ; complete (not to omit any major category); significant (the categories are classified in terms of their importance).
♦Essay developed by arguments:
In the argumentative essay, the writer presents logically two competing views. There are two aims for developing such kind of essay. One is to convince the reader of the relevance and pertinence of a point of view, the other is to persuade the reader to accept a point of view as true.
Exercise:
Write an essay on one of the following topics using the appropriate method of development.
1- Dangerous chemical substances are polluting our water supplies.
2- Write about two people who share some similarities and differences.
3- Explain how to make orange marmalade.
PARAGRAPH LINKING
Whenever you are writing a paper of more than one paragraph, you will be concerned with making clear to the reader the relation between paragraphs. Since a paragraph represents a unit of thought, a writer often needs to establish a connection between each paragraph unit in order to clarify a developing idea.
There are four basic ways to create transition between paragraphs.
1- Use a pronoun that refers to a person, idea, or thing just mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
Example:… in addition, they carried a wireless radio set, warm clothing, and an extra three weeks’ food supply.
Because of these careful preparations, the expedition was ready when the unexpected emergency happened…
2- Repeat a key word used in the preceding paragraph.
Example1: …Third, the board of directors agreed to offer Mr. Gray the presidency of the airline.
When the offer was made, it was not immediately accepted.
.Example2: …But a child should be given training in good manners, for this will help him throughout his life.
Good manners are not always easy to teach, however. In fact, many parents find this one of their most difficult tasks…
3- Repeat a phrase referring directly to the preceding idea.
Example: …And the entire world has left the effect of the small, inexpensive transistor radio.
Small transistor radios are found throughout the globe- on the beaches of Malaysia, on the farms of Denmark, and in Bedouin tents in Saudi Arabia…
4- Use transitions:
Most of the transitions that link sentences together can also serve as a bridge between paragraphs. The following are frequently used.
-Consequently -Nevertheless
-Finally -On the other hand
-Otherwise -Such
-Similarly -Then
-Accordingly
-Therefore
-Another
-As a result
- At last
-At this time
-Too
-Thus
-For example
-For instance
-Furthermore
-In fact
-Likewise
-Also
-Moreover
CONCLUDING THE COMPOSITION
The conclusion:
The conclusion is a specific paragraph with which an essay closes. Since it is the last part of the essay, its effects may be sounder than what has been written before.
Imagine that you have almost finished . The carefully thought out development of your ideas is behind you. You have, up to now, maintained unity and coherence in all your paragraphs. All that remains is to tie off the composition, concluding it in a way that will be both meaningful and graceful.
Sometimes you do not feel ready to close the essay because you may be so tired from writing and you have run dry of ideas. Another reason is that you may not realize the many possibilities that exist for writing conclusions. You may feel it easier to just stop and turn in the paper as it stands. But what you ignore is that you may lead the reader to disappointment: an abrupt ending might make the difference between a successful and unsuccessful composition.
Because the conclusion is the last section to be read, ideas placed here may have more impact than hose mentioned earlier in the composition. The reader may also remember the concluding ideas longer.
Ways of concluding a composition:
There are many ways to conclude a composition. The most effective ways are listed below.
♦You can conclude with a summary.
♦You can conclude with an anecdote.
♦You can conclude with a question.
♦You can conclude with a dramatic narrative.
♦You can conclude with a key climactic point.
♦You can conclude with a quotation.
♦You can conclude with first statement of the thesis.
♦You can conclude with appropriate lines of poetry.
♦You can conclude with figurative ********.
♦You can conclude by restating the thesis statement.
COMPOSITION DEVELOPED BY EXAMPLES
The model composition: New Lifestyles from Old Ideas
The accumulated wisdom of religions and philosophies from around the globe offers much guidance to people who are shaping lifestyles appropriate to the end of the twentieth century. From the orient, from the Arab world, and from the West come ideas that have endured. Here are some of them.
Buddhism, Christianity, and many other beliefs recognize the value of the Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would have others do unto you”. The Greek philosopher Socrates illustrated the Golden Rule at the end of his life. Sentenced to death in the fifth century B.C. for his heretical social and religious views, he refused the chance to escape from prison. This was his reasoning. When a person is born, Socrates pointed out, he enters into an amplified contract with the state. Because of this, the individual has the right to expect protection from the state throughout his lifetime. In turn, the state has an equally strong claim on the citizen to obey its laws. If a person feels that a law is unjust, said Socrates, he has two courses of action. He can either work to influence the repeal of the law or renounce his work in order not to break the law. In this he is not different from the state, which must not neglect its duty to the citizen. Socrates’ experience speaks to the modern man who sometimes may be tempted to use extreme means to upset the delicate balance existing between a citizen and his state.
A second insight stems from the “categorical imperative” first formulated by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant in his 1785 work ‘****physic of Morals’. Stated simply, the ‘categorical imperative’ holds that a person should act as if the example of his action were to become a general law for all men to follow. Following this premise, one would find it difficult to justify theft or murder. Even to borrow money is wrong, according to Kant, because if everyone did this, there would be no money left to borrow.
Further guidelines are found in the teachings of Mohamed, collected in the Koran. His Islamic contributions express a profound humanism; Mohamed emphasized the dignity of man and viewed the whole humanity as a single nation. He both encouraged the expansion of knowledge and placed great importance on the value of work, however humble it might be. Today’s young crafts people, skillfully working to create woven goods or jewelry or candles, and the street musicians in many North American cities are all following the industrious tradition of Mohamed.
Still another percept, this one from the Buddhist religion is illustrated by the custom of buying a bird in a small wooden cage in order to open the cage’s door and release the bird. The underlying ideas of gentleness and freedom have a timeless relevance.
Finally, the two short sentences carved by the Greeks on the Temple of Delphi can give superb direction to human life regardless of time or place. “Know thyself”, says one inscription, offering advice that is vital but not easy to follow. And “nothing in excess” reads the second, echoing the Golden Mean, or middle way, stressed by many religions. This rule of avoiding excess in actions can apply equally well to almost every phase of life, including eating, drinking, sleeping, working, playing, thinking, and reading.
Development by Examples
In an essay developed by examples, how well the author presents his points depends largely upon the persuasiveness of his examples.
In the composition ,New Lifestyles from Old Ideas, the purpose is to explain some of the world’s most fundamental philosophical ideas. It is built on examples. Among them are the Golden Rule, the experience of Socrates, the Categorical Imperative of Immanuel Kant, and the inscriptions on the Temple of Delphi.
By its nature, philosophy is an abstract subject. Because of this, it can be confusing to someone who is untrained in the subject. The writer realizes that the composition would probably not communicate its ideas to the reader if it were written in wholly general terms. Therefore, the writer has relied upon examples in order to be more specific and easily understandable.
Examples should be meaningful to the reader. Suppose you want to write about Newton’s principle of Relativity. You may realize that it is a complex concept. To define it in terms that a general reader can understand , you may choose to use familiar examples like a train or a ship. You could decide to use only one example: that of the ship. This probably would state the idea quite well. But by adding a second example of the train, you would make relativity still more understandable to the reader, particularly the reader who is more familiar with train travel than with travel by ship.
To explain the process as clearly as possible, the writer may bring in a personal experience as an illustrative example.
When you decide to use one fully developed example, you may use a few short examples in the introduction for a specific purpose.
Examples are used to emphasize the controlling ideas of passages. Choose examples for your own writing that do the same thing. In addition, pick examples that will have force and meaning for your readers. Your goal should be to supply fresh, unusual examples that suggest new connections and insights. Arrange your ideas in order of increasing importance, saving the strongest examples for last. Your main goal should be to arrange examples to get the effect that you want.
Transitions used in the development by examples:
Consequently, finally, otherwise, similarly, accordingly, therefore, another, as a result, at last, at this time, too, thus, for example, for instance, furthermore, in fact, likewise, also, moreover, nevertheless, on the other hand, such, then…
In the model composition, the final sentence of the first paragraph is a transitional signal: Here are some of the beliefs This signal leads into the first sentence of the second paragraph , which begins with a listing of Buddhist, Christian and other beliefs.
The third paragraph opens with the phrase “A second insight”; the fourth with “further guidance”; the fifth with “still another percept” ; the sixth with “finally”.
In each new paragraph, these essential first words inform the reader that the train of thought of the previous paragraph has ended and that a new aspect of the subject is to be introduced.
The process of linking paragraphs together, requires, if not more planning, perhaps at least more imagination and ingenuity than that of placing transitions between and within sentences.
The thesis statement:
The thesis statement in the model composition is in the introductory paragraph. It indicates to the reader what the piece of writing is all about: “From the orient, from the Arab World and from the West come ideas that have endured. Here are some of them”. Notice that the thesis is stated clearly and that the reader is readily informed about the type of development the writer is using.
The developing paragraphs:
The five paragraphs of the main development each begins with a topic sentence:
-Buddhism, Christianity, and many other beliefs recognize the value of the Golden Rule….
-A second insight stems from the Categorical Imperative…
-Further guidelines are collected in the teaching of Mohamed…
-Still another percept, this one from the Buddhist religion…
-Finally, the two short sentences carved by the Greeks on the Temple of Delphi…
In each of these sentences, the controlling idea can easily be identified.
The purpose:
To explain some of the world’s most fundamental philosophical ideas.
The concluding paragraph:
The concluding paragraph in this essay is part of the developing paragraphs. It contains the last example. It ends in a wise philosophical thinking.
The outline:
Thesis statement:
I. Buddhism, Christianity, and many other beliefs….
- The Golden Rule
II. The Categorical Imperative
- 1785 Immanuel Kant’s “****physic of Morals”
III. Guidelines collected in the teaching of Mohamed
IV. The Buddhist religion
V. The two sentences carved by the Greeks on the temple of Delphi
COMPOSITION DEVELOPED BY COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Comparison and contrast are essentially opposite approaches. When a writer is comparing, he is pointing out the similarities that exist between objects, terms, or ideas. For example, the fan belt of an automobile engine might be compared to the conveyor belt in the factory.
When a writer is contrasting, though, he is focusing on the differences between objects, terms or ideas. A large city like Istanbul could be contrasted with a small city like Izmir, a jet engine might be described by showing how it differs from a piston engine.
Logically, however, you will find that comparison and contrast are to some degree always combined. In any set of items being compared, there is usually an element of contrast. Conversely, there is normally some point of comparison in any contrast. This is so both because completely identical things cannot be compared and because objects that have nothing in common do not provide a meaningful contrast.
When you write either a comparison or a contrast, two basic methods of development, or a combination of them are possible. Which one you choose will be determined by the nature of the subject matter .If you are dealing with two rather broad topics that are not too complex or detailed, you may first fully discuss one and then go on to discuss the second in a subsequent paragraph. But if you topics are complex or involve many small similarities or differences, it may be preferable to examine them in pairs, turning first to one and then to the other alternately. Such a paired development of a comparison or contrast is especially suited to a topic containing statistics or many small details. In practice, development of parts of a comparison in two separate paragraphs may raise problems for a reader. By the time the reader reaches the second paragraph, he or she may not clearly remember the points that have been made in the first paragraph. Development by pairs tends to be more forceful and direct.
Transitions for comparison and contrast.
Transitions are especially necessary in writing a comparison or contrast. The reader needs clear signals in order to follow the many shifts of a writer’s thought in describing the similarities or differences of a subject.
The following transitions are often used in writing comparisons.
First, second, third…
Another
Equally important
Besides
In fact
Furthermore
Too
Then
In addition to
For one thing
Moreover
At the same time
Accordingly
Like
The following are often helpful when dealing with contrasts.
On the contrary
On the other hand
Despite
Yet
Unlike
In contrast
However
Different from
In spite of
Although
But
Whereas
Nevertheless
Instead.
Development by Comparison and Contrast
The model composition: Japan and the USA: Different but Alike
At first glance, Japan astonishes and fascinates the American because it seems so different. All that characterizes the United States- racial and ethic heterogeneity, newness, vast territory, and individualistic ethic- is absent in Japan. Instead bone encounters an ancient and homogeneous population, traditions that emphasize the importance of groups and communal needs, with a rich panoply of highly elaborate rites and ceremonies that cover every aspect of daily living, from drinking to saying hello.
Where Americans pride themselves on a studied informality and openness, their Japanese counterparts employ formality and complexity. If Americans value time, the Japanese treasure space. While Americans have always enjoyed a sense of continental scale, employing ****phors of size to describe both the natural environment and industrial production, Japan has exerted its genius on the diminutive and the miniature. It seems appropriate for America to produce the world’s airplanes, while Japan creates cameras and transistors.
Yet these two cultures, so apparently opposite in almost every way, have always possessed a strange affinity for each other. Like their descendents, 19th century American visitors found the world of Japanese art, philosophy, ceremonies, and social life to be compellingly attractive. One reason is its very comprehensiveness. Japan is a filled-in culture, with few imprecisions or empty spaces. Little has been left to chance; nothing has been too small to escape attention.
Opposites supposedly attract, but there is more to it than that. Japan and America share to differing degrees, some large experiences and broad skills which have bred a certain kind of sympathy.
Both for example, have transplanted cultures. Each nation has a “mother” society- China and Great Britain- that has influenced the daughter in countless ways: in ********, religion, social organization, art, literature, and national ideals. Japan ,of course, has had more time than the United States to work on its unique interpretation of this older culture. But even today the debt to China is perceivable and gracefully acknowledged. It has produced in some artists and philosophers the same kind of ambivalence and self-consciousness dominating American cultural nationalists.
Both societies, moreover, have developed the broker-age art, the business of buying and selling, of advertising and mass producing, to unprecedented levels. Few sights are more representative than the tens of thousands of bustling stores to be seen in Japan, above all the disciplined and enticing department stores. To American eyes they seem comforting and reassuring as an expression of the commercial spirit.
Both peoples love to shop, to travel, and to record. And both peoples have always emphasized the importance of work and are paying penalties for their commitment to development and modernization.
Activities:
Activity1: Read the composition to analyze the way it was developed.
- Identify the thesis statement.
- Describe how the developing paragraphs are presented
- What is the purpose of this composition?
- How did the writer introduce the composition?
- How did the writer conclude the composition?
- How did the writer link between the different paragraphs?
- Draw a sentence outline out of the model composition.
Activity2:
Choose one of the following as your central theme for a composition primarily developed by comparison or contrast. Use examples liberally.
-The temperaments of two friends of yours.
- Two ways to lose weight.
-Life on the farm and life in the city.
-Two public figures who serve humanity in different ways.
- Two family members with different value systems.
COMPOSITION DEVELOPED BY DEFINITION
The word “definition” brings to mind a dictionary, for it is to a dictionary that we turn to find the meanings of unfamiliar words. A definition sets a limit or a boundary to the defined term. Usually dictionary definitions are brief, logical, and formal.
The logical definition, by its nature has two parts: the genus and the species
The genus is the first . It is the class or category, consisting of items which can be grouped together because of their likenesses or common traits.
The species is the second part of a logical definition . It is those characteristics which differentiate it from other members of the same genus.
Consider the following example:
The dictionary definition of the word “piano” is as follows:
“a stringed percussion instrument having steel wire springs that sound when struck by felt-covered hammers operated from a key-board.”
The genus in this definition is: “a stringed percussion instrument”
The species is “it has steel wire springs that sound when struck by felt-covered hammers operated from a key-board”. It distinguishes the piano from any other stringed instrument, such as a zither or a harp.
Short definitions can be logical without being formal.
Example: The word “home” has been defined as “the place where, when you have to go there, they have to take you in”.
-The word “a fishing rod” has been defined as a stick with a fish at one end and a fool at the other.
Errors to be avoided when writing logical definitions:
Three errors should be avoided in the writing of logical definitions.
1- A definition should not be circular. The species should not include the word being defined as in the following example: “A stoic is an advocate of stoicism.”
2- The genus in definitions should not be too small to include the thing being defined
3- The genus should not be so large that it becomes not really useful. Defining “an automobile” as “a means of transportation” makes of its genus too large to be meaningful.
The extended definition:
Extended definitions are sometimes developed by special expository techniques. Suppose we are dealing with the term “civil rights”.
One way to develop a definition is to give the background of the term, perhaps discussing the source of the civil rights movement and the various directions in which it has developed.
Another method of definition is to list the various elements of what is being defined, possibly selecting one for further development. Using this method , we could break civil rights inot political, social, and sexual categories.
Another way to define this term is by negation, clarifying civil rights by showing what it is not.
Probably, the most common ways to construct definitions could be the different types of expository development: examples, comparison and contrast, process, cause and effect, and logical division or classification. For example we could give examples of milestones in civil rights legislation for Black Americans, we could compare or contrast civil rights advances of American Blacks with those of American senior citizens, we could outline the process by which an important civil rights bill was passed by several states, or we could use logical division to examine the status of civil rights in a number of countries, among them the United States and South Africa.
DEVELOPMENT BY DEFINITION
The model composition: What is a Rodeo?
A rodeo is perhaps the most genuinely American of all sports. The word “rodeo” is a Spanish one meaning “gathering place or marketplace for cattle”. A rodeo itself is a competitive contest based loosely on traditional cowboy skills of riding and roping. It consists of six major events (1) Riding an unbroken range horse(bucking bronco) in a saddle; (2) Riding a bucking bronco without a saddle (bareback); (3) Riding a bull; (4) Roping a calf; (5) wrestling a steer to the ground (bulldogging); (6) Racing horses around barrels (with women riders).
The first rodeo took place following a cattle roundup in the 1880s. From this informal cowboy pastime, a colorful spectacle has evolved that contains many familiar American elements-the exciting action of bucking horses and bulls, the explosive masculine environment, the hot dog stands, beer barrels, boots, jeans, and cowboy hats.
Today most rodeos are staged in a large, flat arena that is fenced off to protect the viewing public. Grandstands are erected on the two sides of the arena; on the other sides are pens to hold the horses, steers, calves, and bulls. Nearby are narrow chutes from which animals are released into the arena. On a platform a loudspeaker system is set up for the announcer, who introduces the riders and comments on the events as they happen. Near the arena are *******ment stands where people gather to buy food and drink. Portable rest rooms are set up near the grandstand , and an ambulance is parked nearby in case of an accident.
An opening parade of proud riders and proud horses usually begins a rodeo; the performers carry flapping national and state flags. Then the two-act performance begins. Calf roping and steer wrestling are timed events. In the fastest possible time, a man must rope throw to the ground a calf and tie three of its feet together. In steer wrestling, the object is to tumble the steer onto his back with its head and all its feet in line. Calf roping has been done under 15 seconds, and a steer has been wrestled in less than 10 seconds.
When riding an animal, a contestant mounts before the chute gates are opened. The rider must stay on the bucking animal for eight seconds; points are given for the performance of both the animal and the contestant. In all riding events the contestant is disqualified if he touches the animal with his free hand.
Probably the most difficult rodeo is Bushman bull riding. During this event, a rodeo comes to resemble a circus because gaily costumed clowns come into the arena to distract the bull’s attention from fallen riders. To stay on a pitching bull for as long as eight seconds is one of the most challenging tasks in a rodeo. Spectators eagerly wait for this event.
The present circuit extends far beyond the region in which the contests first developed. Now rodeos are popular throughout the western half of the USA and in major eastern and southern cities. Australia also stages these events. One of the biggest rodeos of all is held during the annual Calgary Stampede in Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Note on the composition:
In the composition “what is a rodeo?” several techniques have been combined for purposes of definition. In the first paragraph, background material for the term “rodeo” includes the derivation of the word and the origin of the event. Then the writer chooses the technique of logical division to outline the six main parts of a rodeo. Finally, the body of the composition depends on development by examples –the animals, the description of the arena, the rules for the contests, and the areas of North America and other countries where rodeos are popular.
Activities:
Activity1: Read the composition to analyze the way it was developed.
- Identify the thesis statement.
- Describe how the developing paragraphs are presented
- What is the purpose of this composition?
- How did the writer introduce the composition?
- How did the writer conclude the composition?
- How did the writer link between the different paragraphs?
- Draw an outline out of the model composition.
Activity 2:
Give logical definitions to the following terms. Identify the genus and the species.
-Courage
-Conscience
- Love
-A medical thermometer
- A drawing compass
Activity3:
Develop a composition in which you define one of the terms suggested in activity2. Develop your paper by choosing whatever methods and patterns will help to explain your meaning clearly.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE COMPOSITION
The argumentative composition is a type of development that consists in convincing and persuading.
An argument ensues when two parties disagree about something. One party gives an opinion and offers reasons in support of it, and the other party gives a different opinion and offers reasons in support of his or her stand. However, people can disagree about many things that cannot be argued effectively, such as a preference (a flavor of ice cream), a faith (a religious belief), or a fact (who won the world cup in 2006).
The kind of argument that can be argued logically is the one based on an opinion that can be supported by evidence such as facts. For example when a nuclear explosion takes place somewhere, a debate ensues concerning the whole issue of nuclear energy. Those in favor of continuing the construction of nuclear power plants argue against those who want to ban further construction of plants. Both proponents and opponents give their reasons.
An argumentative essay is one that attempts to change the reader’s mind, to convince the reader to agree with the point of view of the writer. Therefore, the argumentative essay attempts to be highly persuasive and logical.
Avoid confusing between a thesis with a strong central idea and an argumentative statement. While the former is a fact, the latter is a course of action often expressed with the modal ‘should’.
Exercise: Are these statements argumentative?
1- The earthquake of El Asnam was one of the most devastating in history.
2- Prospective (future) parents should be required to get licenses in order to have children.
3- The building codes in Constantine are inadequate.
4- Most of the Algerians I met are quite hospitable.
5- There are complex reasons for the failure of the police to respond quickly to alarms.
6- Pornographic books ought to be banned from all libraries.
The opposition:
When you write an argumentative essay, you must be acutely aware of the audience-the reader. Remember that the purpose of an argumentative composition is to convince the reader that your position is the best. To begin with, assume that the reader disagrees with you. Next, remember that although the reader disagrees with you, that does not mean he or she is any less intelligent than you. Therefore, avoid attacking the reader with such statements as “anyone who believes we should ban nuclear plants must be ignorant or out of touch with reality”. Indeed address your reader writing objectively, logically, and respectfully.
The most important thing to consider about the members of the audience is why they hold their opinion. What reasons do they think they might use to support their opinion? Trying to identify and understand your opponent’s point of view is important; if you do not understand your opponent’s reasons and you just argue your own reasons, you are not likely to convince the reader at all.
Arguing:
How can you convince someone who disagrees with you? First, you need to understand what points need to be argued; that is, you must be sure that you understand the ‘heart ‘ of the issue if you know your stand on the issue and you know what points you have to prove, then you are well on your way toward constructing a logical argument.
All formal arguments are based on logic. There are two kinds of formal logical reasoning: inductive and deductive. Induction refers to the process of examining particular details and arriving at a conclusion based on that evidence. Let’s say that you are an investigative reporter for a newspaper. You have been asked to look into the causes of a famous hotel fire. After some research, you learned that the fire was due to faulty electrical wiring and you found out that ABC Wire Company had installed the wiring. After further research, you found out that 60% of the buildings that were wired by ABC Company caught fire within two years, and 85% of those fires were due to faulty electrical wiring. From this, you reasonably conclude “Buildings wired by ABC Company are likely to have faulty wiring”.
Deduction, on the other hand, refers to the process of arriving at a conclusion about a particular case base on a generalization. In other words, in deduction you begin with a generalization and apply it to a specific case. Concerning the ABC Company, you would begin with the conclusion mentioned above, and end with “ the International Hotel probably has faulty wiring”. The initial generalization is called the major premise and the specific case is the minor premise. Syllogism is a kind of reasoning that takes you inductively from a specific case to a generalization. (Human beings die, I’m a human being, therefore I must die). When you plan an argumentative composition , it is often a good idea to begin the argument at a point where you and your opponent both agree.
Activity:
Construct similar syllogisms.
Planning the argumentative composition:
When you are planning an argumentative essay, be aware that the essay should contain the following characteristics:
1- The argumentative composition should introduce and explain the issue or case. The reader needs to understand the issue being argued. It is often to define any ambiguous terms.
2- The composition should offer reasons and support for those reasons. In other words, the essay should prove its point.
3- The essay should refute opposing arguments. You must prove your own case, and you should also prove that the opponent is wrong. To refute means to prove wrong by arguments
Organizing the argumentative composition:
The basic workable approach commonly used is the following:
1- Introduction: Sometimes writers break down the introduction into two paragraphs: the first one introducing the thesis and the second explaining additional information or giving background information necessary for the argument.
2- Reasons: It is a good idea to spend one paragraph for each reason. Two or three reasons are typical.
3- Refutation: Depending on how many points the writer wishes to address, the refutation can take from one to three paragraphs. It is possible for the refutation to come before the reasons.
4- Conclusion.
Examples of argumentative topics:
1- One of the good reasons the use of pesticides in farming should be severely restricted and controlled is that pesticides kill good and bad insects indiscriminately. You may think the more dead insects the better, but some insects are actually beneficial to farmers.
2- Excluding a student is the perfect type of that pure evil against which all teachers should fight.
3- Women should not be drafted for combat duty.
4- Students should have a say in the hiring and firing of teachers.
The argumentative composition
The model composition: Prohibition and Drugs
“The reign of tears is over. The slums will soon be only a memory. We will turn our prisons into factories and our jails into storehouses and corncribs. Men will walk upright now, women will smile, and the children will laugh. Hell will be forever for rent.”
This is how Billy Sunday, the noted evangelist and leading crusader against Demon Rum, greeted the onset of prohibition in early 1920.We know now how tragically his hopes were doomed. New prisons and jails had to be built to house the criminals spawned by converting the drinking of spirits into a crime against the state. Prohibition undermined respect for the law, corrupted the minions of the law, created a decadent moral climate-but did not stop the consumption of alcohol.
Despite this tragic lesson, we seem bent on repeating precisely the same mistake in the handling of drugs.
On ethical grounds do we have the right to use the machinery of government to prevent an individual from becoming an alcoholic or a drug addict? For children, almost everyone would answer at least a qualified yes. But for responsible adults I would answer no. Reason with the potential addict, yes. Tell him the consequences, yes. Pray for him and with him, yes. But I believe that we have no right to use force, directly or indirectly, to prevent a fellow man from committing suicide, let alone from drinking alcohol or taking drugs.
I readily grant that the ethical issue is difficult and that men of goodwill may well disagree. Fortunately, we need not resolve the ethical issue to agree on policy. Prohibition is an attempted cure that makes matters worse for both the addict and the rest of us. Hence, even if you regard present policy toward drugs as ethically justified, considerations of expediency make that policy most unwise.
Consider first the addict. Legalizing drugs might increase the number of addicts, but it is not clear that it would. Forbidden fruit is attractive, particularly to the young. More important, many drug addicts are deliberately made by pushers, who give likely prospects their first few doses free. It pays the pusher to do so because once hooked, the addict is a captive customer. If drugs were legally available, any possible profit from such inhumane activity would disappear, since the addict could buy from the cheapest source.
Whatever happens to the number of addicts, the individual addict would clearly be far better off if drugs were legal. Today, drugs are both incredibly expensive and highly uncertain in quality. Addicts are driven to associate with criminals to get the drugs, become criminals themselves to finance the habit, and risk constant danger of death and disease.
Consider next the rest of us. Here the situation is crystal- clear. The harm to us from the addiction of others arises almost wholly from the fact that drugs are illegal. A recent committee of the American Bar Association estimated that addicts commit one-third to one half of all street crime in the US. Legalize drugs and street crime would drop automatically.
Moreover, addicts and pushers are not the only ones corrupted. Immense sums are at stake. It is inevitable that some relatively low-paid police and other government officials- and some high-paid ones as well- will succumb to the temptation to pick up easy money.
In drugs, as in other areas, persuasion and example are likely to be far more effective than the use of force to shape others in our image.
Activities
Activity1: Read the composition to analyze the way it was developed.
- Identify the thesis statement.
- Describe how the developing paragraphs are presented
- What is the purpose of this composition?
- How did the writer introduce the composition?
- How did the writer conclude the composition?
- How did the writer link between the different paragraphs?
- Draw an outline out of the model composition.
- Do you agree with the writer’s position? If yes, write an essay adding more arguments to support your stand.
- In case you do not agree with the writer’s stand, write an essay exposing opposing arguments.
Activity2:
Choose one of the topics suggested in the lesson about argumentative writing to write an essay. Refer to the techniques and procedures presented in the same lesson.
THE COMPOSITION DEVELOPED BY CAUSE AND EFFECT
A composition developed by cause and effect tries to explain why something happened. This type of development is particularly well suited for writing about scientific subjects. But its usefulness as a mode of development extends far beyond the science classroom into every area of expository composition. For example, a history student may be asked to write about the causes of the first world war; a student of psychology may have to respond to an essay test question about the effects on a prisoner of war of prolonged internment; literature students may have to write on the causes and effects of the rise of romanticism in English literature.
Causal analysis is not only important in schools and universities, professional and business men often adapt cause and effect to their affairs. It is essential for instance to a doctor diagnosing an illness, to a lawyer defending a client in the courtroom, or to a businessman organizing a sales compaign.
Cause can be defined as that by which an effect is produced. Some causes are immediate. They can be discovered without much effort because they occur close in time to the effect produced.
Example: A broken gas line that causes an explosion and a subsequent apartment house fire.
Other causes may be more remote and thus difficult to uncover, these are the basic underlying factors that help to explain the more obvious ones.
Example: The reason for the gas line breaking might have been that , several years earlier, a manufacturer supplied defective pipe to the apartment builder.
Thus the remote cause for the apartment house fire would be the action of the careless or dishonest manufacturer.
How thoroughly you trace both immediate and remote causes and effects will depend on two factors:
1- The nature of your subject.
2- The audience you are writing to.
Sometimes writers of causal analysis will tend to stress cause; at other times, they may place the chief emphasis upon effect. No matter what the balance , however, cause and effect must be considered as a single method. One is incomplete without the other.
Mistakes to avoid when dealing with causal analysis:
In dealing with cause and effect, writers can commit certain fallacies of reasoning that should be guarded against.
1- Avoid assuming that something happening in connection with or after another incident is necessarily evidence of a causal relationship. For example, hearing a loud explosion after having seen a jet plane streak by may or may not mean that the noise is sonic boom. Nor does a rough-riding automobile necessarily mean that the car has a flat tire. The road might be uneven.
2- Consider all possibly relevant factors before settling on a cause. Perhaps a marriage failed because of the husband’s reckless spending. But his being extravagant may itself be the result of his wife’s refusal to relocate so that he can accept a better job. Sorting out possible causes is one of the writer’s touchiest jobs.
3- Never omit any link in the chain of causes unless you are sure the audience you are writing to will automatically make the right connection-something you can rarely count on happening. It is much safer to write down carefully the network of causes that lead to an effect.
4- Try to be clear minded, honest, and objective in your reasoning. Leave old prejudices behind when dealing with causal analysis. Keep in mind the possibility of multiple causes and effects. Unless you take the complexity of causal analysis into consideration, your analysis could become superficial.
Usually, a writer of causal analysis works logically from the immediate cause (or effect) to the most remote. Or the writer may start with the basic cause and work up to the immediate. . Once you have sifted the subject through your mind, the structure will be generated by the kind of supporting facts you gather.
When writing your causal analysis, make a conscious effort to support your assertions with evidence. Such evidence may include quotations from authoritative texts, statistics, or testimony of reliable experts in a field of study. Examples are very important in causal analysis.
CAUSAL ANALYSIS
The model composition: Precognitive Dreams
One of the most striking apparent instances of extrasensory perception is the precognitive experience, when a person has a compelling perception of an imminent disaster, news of the death of a loved one, or a communication from a long-lost friend, and the predicted event then transpires . Many who have had such experiences report that the emotional intensity of the precognition and its subsequent verification provide an overpowering sense of contact with another realm of reality. I have had such an experience myself. Many years ago, I awoke in the dead of night in a cold sweat , with a certain knowledge that a close relative had suddenly died. I was so gripped with the haunting intensity of the experience that I was afraid to place a long-distance phone call, for fear that the relative would trip over the telephone cord (or something) and make the experience a self-fulfulling prophecy. In fact, the relative is alive and well and whatever psychological roots the experience may have, it was not a reflection of an imminent event in the real world.
However, suppose the relative had in fact died that night. You would have a difficult time convincing me that it was merely coincidence. But it is easy to calculate that if each American has such a premonitory experience a few times in his lifetime, the actuarial statistics alone will produce a few apparent precognitive events somewhere in America each year. We can calculate that this must occur fairly frequently, but the rare person who dreams of disaster, followed rapidly by its realization, it is uncanny and awesome. Such a coincidence must happen to someone every few months. But those who experience a correct precognition understandably resist its explanation by coincidence.
After my experience I did not write a letter to an institute of parapsychology relating a compelling predictive dream which was not borne out by reality. That is not a memorable letter. But had the death I dreamt actually occurred, such a letter would have been marked down as evidence for precognition. The hits are recorded; the misses are not. Thus human nature unconsciously conspires to produce a biased reporting of the frequency of such events.
Note on the model composition
The purpose of the model composition is to examine a possible cause and effect situation. The writer discusses the familiar experience of a person who first has a premonition, or feeling that something important is going to happen and later finds that the expected event does indeed take place. The writer concludes in his final topic sentence that a biased reporting of the frequency of predictive dreams is an effect that is caused by an unconscious conspiracy of human nature. In other words, the writer uses a cause and effect development to express doubt about the validity of precognitive dreams.
Activities:
Activity1: Read the composition to analyze the way it was developed.
- Identify the thesis statement.
- Describe how the developing paragraphs are presented
- How did the writer introduce the composition?
- How did the writer conclude the composition?
- How did the writer link between the different paragraphs?
- Draw an outline out of the model composition.
- Identify the immediate and the remote causes in the passage.
Activity2: Analyze the immediate and remote causes and /or effects of one of the following subjects to develop a composition . Avoid allowing your analysis to become a mere listing of superficial reasons.
1- Student cheating.
2- Your need to succeed.
3- The present day emphasis on ecology.
THE ELLIPTICAL CLAUSE
The elliptical clause is an important aid to economy in writing English. In many cases, it is possible to leave out a relative pronoun that normally would join a dependent clause to an independent clause.
Examples:
-The movie I wanted to see was not playing (that/which unexpressed).
-We couldn’t understand the point he was making.(that/ which unexpressed).
Sometimes a dependent clause contains neither subject nor verb:
Examples:
-When in Barcelona, try to find a quiet hotel room. (for when you are in Barcelona).
-While working in the store, I met many interesting people.(for while I was working in the store).
Whenever such words are left out of a dependent clause, it is known as an elliptical clause.
Another kind of elliptical construction occurs most commonly after the words “than” and “as”. To avoid repetition in both speaking and writing, we usually drop the final verb in sentences such as these:
-The chairman spoke longer than he. (spoke is not repeated).
-Are you as old as she? (is, is omitted)
-We danced longer than they. (danced is not repeated).
After “than” and “as” introducing an incomplete construction, use the form of the pronoun you would use if the construction were completed. The pronoun chosen in such a construction depends upon the intent of the writer.
-I like George better than he. (better than he likes George).
-I like George better than him. (better than I like him).
Although the nominative case pronoun (I, he, she, they, we) are preferred usage in than and as constructions for formal writing and speaking, the objective case (me, him, her, them, us) is generally accepted..
Examples:
Formal: Colloquial:
-They worked harder than we -They worked harder than us.
-Are you as hungry as I? -Are you as hungry as me?
-Ann is older than she -Ann is older than her.
Exercises:
Exercise1: Reduce the number of words in these sentences by making the introductory dependent clauses elliptical. Write out the revised sentences.
Example: While she was *****ng dinner, she spilled the sugar.
While *****ng dinner, she spilled the sugar.
1- Although she was expecting a telephone call, the doctor had to leave her office.
2- While he was driving into town, Michael ran out of gas.
3- If students are curious about their final grade, they should ask their professor.
4- When students are applying for a scholarship, they should write neatly.
5- After you finish cutting the grass, please water it.
6- Even though she is working every day, my roommate still has time for a lot of reading.
7- When he is hammering a nail, he almost always hits his thumb.
8- After Laura had been looking for her key for half an hour, she found it under a chair.
9- When they are looking for an apartment to rent, newcomers to a city often read the newspaper advertisements every day.
10- While they were watching the football game on TV, the students often cheered.
Exercise2:
Choose the correct pronoun to complete each sentence. Write out the completed sentence. Then write in parentheses after each sentence the part of the sentence beginning with than or as, followed by the pronoun and the understood verb. Choose colloquial forms when indicated.
Example: Janet is sleepier than (I, me).
Janet is sleepier than I. (I am).
1- You worked harder than (they, them)
2- Is he older than (I, me)?
3- Did you stay as long as (he, him)?
4- You don’t seem as hungry as (I, me) (colloquial form).
5- Michael is more popular than (he, him).
6- Carl is stronger than (I, me) (colloquial form).
7- They don’t dance as well as (we, us ).
8- Is he older than (she, her) (colloquial form).
9- Do you like to drive as fast as (they, them).
10- I can do the job better than (she, her).
COMPOSITION DEVELOPED BY LOGICAL DIVISION OR CLASSIFICATION
Classification organizes information into groups and categories. An effective classification begins by defining a subject and then dividing it into major categories based on a common trait. The categories are then arranged in a sequence that shows that the division is consistent (the same principle is used to classify each category), complete (no major categories are omitted), and significant (categories and subcategories are arranged in an order that demonstrates some purpose).
Classification, like comparison, builds on your reader’s expectations for precision, balance, and order. Call your reader’s attention to the principle you have used to classify each category or clearly imply it , and devote approximately the same amount of space to each category. Finally , arrange your categories and sub points clearly and logically so that your reader is able to follow your system.
Development by classification
The model composition: Territorial Behavior
A territory is defended space. In the broadest sense, there are three kinds of human territory: tribal, family, and personal.
First the tribal territory. We evolved as tribal animals, living in comparatively small groups, probably of less than a hundred, and we existed like that for millions of years. It is our basic social unit, a group in which everyone knows everyone else. Essentially, the tribal territory consisted of a home base surrounded by extended hunting grounds. Any neighboring tribe intruding on our social space would be repelled and driven away. As these early tribes swelled into agricultural super-tribes, and eventually into industrial nations, their territorial defense systems became increasingly elaborate. The tiny ancient home base of the hunting tribe became the great capital city, the primitive war paint became the flags, emblems uniforms and regalia of the specialized military, and the war chants became national anthems, marching songs and bugle calls. Territorial boundary lines hardened into fixed borders, often conspicuously patrolled and punctuated with defensive structures-forts and lookout posts, checkpoints and great walls, and today, custom barriers.
Second, the family territory. Essentially the family is a breeding unit and the family space is a breeding ground. At the centre of this space, there is the nest- the bedroom- where tucked up in bed, we feel at our most territorially secure. In a typical house the bedroom is upstairs, where a safe nest should be. This puts it farther away from the entrance hall, the area where contact is made, intermittently, with the outside world. The less private reception rooms , where intruders are allowed access, are the next line of defense. Beyond them, outside the walls of the building, there is often a symbolic remnant of the ancient feeding grounds-a garden. Its symbolism often extends to the plants and animals it contains, which cease to be nutritional and become merely decorative-flowers and pets. But like a true territorial space, it has conspicuously displayed boundary-line, the garden fence, wall or railings…
Third, the personal space. If a man enters a waiting room and sits at one end of a long row of empty chairs, it is possible to predict where the next man to enter will seat himself. He will not sit next to the first man, nor will he sit at the far end right away from him . He will choose a position about halfway between these two points. The next man to enter will take the largest gap left, and sit roughly in the middle of that, and so on, until eventually the latest newcomer will be forced to select a seat that places him right next to one of the already seated men. Similar patterns can be observed in cinemas, public urinals, aeroplanes, trains and buses. This is a reflection of the fact that we all carry with us, everywhere we go, a portable territory called personal space. If people move inside this space, we feel threatened. If they keep too far outside it, we feel rejected.
Activities:
Activity1: Read the composition to analyze the way it was developed.
- Identify the thesis statement.
- Describe how the developing paragraphs are presented
- How did the writer introduce the composition?
- How did the writer conclude the composition?
- How did the writer link between the different paragraphs?
- Draw an outline out of the model composition.
- What is the purpose of this composition.
- Underline the transitions used in the composition, what do you notice?
Activity2:
Write a composition developed by logical division on one of the following subjects:
1- Do you believe that equal opportunity for men and women in all areas of life is desirable? Explore this issue.
2- As women become more active in business and political life, do you think that men should become more domesticated, possibly staying home, keeping house, and caring for the children?
Letter writing
(Formal and Informal letters)
1- Writing business letters:
Business letters should follow prescribed usage with respect to the six essential parts:
a- heading, b- inside address, c- salutation or greeting, d- body of the letter, e- complimentary close, f- signature.
a- The heading:
It must give the full address of the writer and the date of the letter. The heading is blocked. End punctuation is regularly omitted with the blocked heading.
Example: 860 Fremont Street
Bessemer, Alabama35020
February3, 1967
If there is a letter head (which supplies the address), the date may be written either under the letter head or flush (exactly on level with) with the right margin.
b- The inside address:
Identical with the address to appear on the envelope. It must give the name and the full address of the person to whom the letter is written.
The inside address must be consistent in form with the heading. The inside address is typed flush with the left margin about six spaces lower than the heading.
c- The salutation:
It should be consistent with the tone of the letter, the first line of the inside address, and the complimentary close.
The salutation is written flush with the left margin two spaces below the inside address and is followed by a colon. The following salutations are used .
For men:
-Dear sir:
-Dear Mr. Smith:
- Gentlemen:
For women:
-Dear Madam:
- Dear Mrs. Smith:
- Ladies:
Note:
The masculine salutation is used to address an organization (Gentlemen) or an individual (Dear sir) whose name the writer does not know.
In some instances, a business letter is addressed to a company or a department of a company but marked for the attention of a particular person. In such letters, the” attention line” is placed two lines above the salutation, thus:
Attention: Mr. L.W. Jones
Gentlemen:
In salutations and addresses, abbreviations are generally disapproved except for Mr. (plural, Messrs.), Mrs. (plural, Mmes). And Dr.
d- The body of the letter:
It should follow the principles of good writing.
Typewritten business letters are usually single- spaced, with double spacing between paragraphs. All paragraphs
♦should begin flush with the left hand margin.
♦Should be indented equally.
♦The subject matter should be well organized and paragraphed, but the paragraphs will frequently be shorter than ordinary writing. The style should be clear and direct. Indirect, abbreviated, or outdated phrasing should be avoided.
Example: Indirect: I beg to inform you that we have…I beg to send… permit us to report that we now supply….
Better: We have… I send … We now supply….
Abbreviated: Hope to have… Enclose a check for six dollars…
Note:
If the letter goes over to a second passage, the sender’s address (whether on letter head or a typed heading) should not be repeated. The name (surname only) of the recipient, the page number, and the date should be given, arranged either across the top of the page or at the upper left margin.
e- The complimentary close:
It should be consistent with the tone of the letter and with the salutation.
Ordinary business letters addressed to strangers should close with: yours truly, yours very truly, or very truly yours.
Professional letters, or business letters addressed to an individual with such an opening as Dear Mr. White, may well close with the more friendly: yours sincerely, sincerely yours, sincerely, faithfully yours, or cordially yours.
f- The signature:
It should be written by hand directly below the complimentary close.
If the writer’s name does not appear in the letter head, it may be typed just below the signature. Ordinarily, neither professional titles nor degrees should be used with the signature, but the writer’s official capacity may be indicated.
Inappropriate: James M.Smith, LL.D.
Permissible: James M. Smith
President.
A married woman should sign her own name (Mary Hughes Black, not Mrs. John K. Black). In business letters her status is indicated by the use of parentheses as follows:
Mary Hughes Black or (Mrs.) Mary Hughes Black.
2- Personal letters and informal social notes:
They follow in general the form of the business letters.
Friendly letters usually omit the inside address. If it is included, it may be placed either at the beginning flush with the right margin or at the end of the letter flush with the left margin.
The salutation is usually followed by a comma instead of the formal colon. As in the business letter, the salutation should be in keeping with the complimentary close and with the tone of the letter. A letter beginning with Dear Mr. Brown may close with Sincerely yours, yours sincerely, or cordially yours. A more familiar salutation and complimentary close may be justified by the intimacy of the correspondents.
The body of the letter will vary greatly with the occasion and with the personality of the writer. An easy, informal style is best.
3- Social notes, announcements, invitations, answers to invitations:
They follow very definite conventions:
-Engraving or handwriting (not typing) is the rule.
- Formal notes are always written in the third person.
- They have no inside address, no salutation, no complimentary close and no signature.
- The writer’s street address and the month and the date may be placed below at the left.
- Every word (except the street number and the abbreviations Mr., Mrs., and Dr.) is spelled out in full.
- Acceptances and regrets follow the form of the invitation closely, repeating the hour and the date to ensure understanding.
Exercise:
1- Write a business letter to ask the manager of a New York hotel to reserve a room for you.
2- Write a personal letter to invite a friend to spend a week end in your home.
( تقرير عن مشاركة سيئة )، و الموجودة أسفل كل مشاركة .
2010-10-21, 14:53
A Distant Course In Written Expression
العرض العادي
