A page for LMD Students

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة brahim.b

Thank you so much , i just want to know exactly how the exams will be ? i want an example about literature exam and linguistics exam plz can anybody helps me ?

salamo my bro wassup look we're still on test and still we have no volunteers i did not study an lmd system and I don't know how the exams like but i'll ask some members to send us some exams and if they can scan them it would be cool just be patient

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

Linguistics
for those who are searching for linguistic courses I would like to redirect you to a very interesting book about linguistics I guess every student heard about well check out this thread pls


Linguistics By H.G.Widdowson

PS: i'm still making a research about the courses when i find them 'll share 'em

Psycholinguistcs


A study on Relationship between Lang-age Anxiety and Proficiency in case of Japanese learners of English.
https://www.4shared.com/office/N1HkHW...ip_betwee.html

Second Lang-age Acquisition and Age Jennifer Wagner
https://www.4shared.com/office/3JlFW6...sition_an.html

SECOND Lang-age ACQUISITION AND ITS PSCYCHO-CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS By Dana Waskita
https://www.4shared.com/office/E591ZG...SITION_AN.html

Second Lang-age acquisition the interface between theory and practice
Summary of findings of a project-based linguistics seminar
held at the Department of English Studies
of the University of Graz, Austria
Oct 2002 – Jan 2003.
https://www.4shared.com/office/3NyjCB...sition_th.html

Second Lang-age acquisition by María del Carmen Gagliardi
https://www.4shared.com/office/91FNn5...quisition.html

Anxiety in Lang-age Learning
https://www.4shared.com/file/UZZ67XEH..._Learning.html

Lang-age Acquisition_ Steven Pinker
https://www.4shared.com/file/EMhl32sW...quisition.html

Second Lang-age Acquisition Theory (Monitor, Natural order…)
https://www.4shared.com/office/zHKPeE...quisition.html

العوامل المؤثرة في تعلم اللغة الثانية
https://www.4shared.com/office/cVZNRbAD/_____.html

القراءات والدراسات النقدية (نظريات اكتساب اللغة الثانية وتطبيقاتها التربوية
https://www.4shared.com/office/gx5tgdf0/_________.html

دراسة ظاهرة اكتساب اللغة
https://www.4shared.com/office/JrMpn-ZL/___.html

مراحل إكتساب اللغة
https://www.4shared.com/office/Q3u93zFG/___online.html

نظريات إكتساب اللغة احمد جمعة محمد ابو شنب
https://www.4shared.com/file/zfvrWzKE/_______.html

نظريات اكتساب اللغة الثانية وتطبيقاتها التربوية

https://www.4shared.com/office/8T-3eaUd/_____.html

[fille algerie]

Salam Alykom
First of all I want to to give special thank 4 u brother ath
Also I want to thank sir Karim 4 his participation
they 're a very useful lessons
Best Regards

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

fille algerie
Thanks for passing by good luck ^^

[ath111]

Pieces of information in Reading Techniques

Reading and reading comprehension

What is reading?

Researchers in the field of reading have not agreed about one exact definition of this skill. Each of them has attempted to define reading from a distinct point of view.

1. One definition of reading describes it as “the activity of reconstructing a reasonable spoken message from a printed text, and making meaning responses to the reconstructed message that would be made to the spoken message” (Carroll 62). It is clear that this definition relates reading to speech. This reflects the influence of the Audio lingual Method which considers reading as an adjunct to oral skills and describes it as being speech written down.

2. Another definition stresses the mechanics involved in this act. J. Harmer, in particular, defines reading as “an exercise dominated by the eyes and the brain. The eyes receive messages and the brain then has to work out the significance of these messages” (Harmer 153). Therefore, Harmer defines reading on the basis of the different organs that are involved in this act.

3. A third definition stresses the psychological aspect of reading. K. Goodman describes reading as “a psycholinguistic guessing game in which the reader reconstructs as best as he can a message which has been encoded by a writer as a graphic display” (qtd. in Eskey et al 74). Thus, according to Goodman reading is: a psycholinguistic activity because it involves the interaction of ******** and thought in that the writer transforms his thoughts into a ******** whereas the reader transforms the ******** contained in the text into thoughts and ideas in his/her mind.

4. Another definition emphasises the mental and cognitive aspects of reading. F. Davies says: “Reading is private. It is a mental or cognitive process which involves a reader in trying to follow and respond to a message from a writer who is distant in space and time” (Davies 01). Davies’ definition raises an important issue about reading. In addition to being a private activity, reading is an interaction between a writer and a reader which results in the transmission of a message between them. In this respect, reading is to some extent similar to listening because both of them require an encoder (speaker, writer), a decoder (hearer, reader) and a means of communication which can be an oral or a written message. But because the reader and the writer do not meet face to face, the latter does not have the opportunity of getting a feedback which a speaker in an oral conversation may have. By the same token, and possibly more relevant to present concern, a reader also has no chance of an explanation or clarification from the writer. He is left alone to face the text. Yet, this is, it may be argued, what makes reading a most interesting, thought provoking activity.


What is reading comprehension?

According to F. Grellet (1981: 3), understanding a written text means extracting the required information from it as efficiently as possible. Therefore, we may say that a person has understood a text if he/she succeeds to get the necessary information in the most effective way.

What do we read?
Here are the main text-types one usually comes across.
- Novels, short stories, tales; other literary texts and passages (e.g. essays, diaries, anecdotes, biographies)
- Plays.
- Letters, postcards, telegrams, notes.
- Newspapers and magazines (headlines, articles, editorials, letters to the editor, stop press, classified ads, weather forecast, radio/TV theatre programmes)
- Specialized articles, reports, reviews, essays, business letters, summaries, accounts, pamphlets (political and other).
- Handbooks, textbooks, guidebooks.
- Recipes.
- Advertisements, travel brochures, catalogues.
- Puzzles, problems, rules for games.
- Instructions (e.g., warnings), directions (e.g. how to use … ), notices, rules and regulations, posters, signs (e.g. road signs), forms (e.g. application forms, landing cards), menus, price lists, tickets.
- Comic strips, cartoons and caricatures, legends (of maps, pictures).
- Statistics, diagrams, charts, ti****bles, maps.
- Telephone directories, dictionaries, phrasebooks.

Why do we read?
There are two main reasons for reading:
- Reading for pleasure.
- Reading for information (in order to find out something or in order to do something with the information you get).

How do we read?
The main ways of reading are as follows:
- Skimming: quickly running one’s eyes over a text to get the gist of it.
- Scanning: quickly going through a text to get to find a particular piece of information.
- Extensive reading: reading longer texts, usually for one’s own pleasure. This is a fluency activity, mainly involving global understanding.
- Intensive reading: reading shorter texts, to extract specific information. This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for detail.

[university4english]

Really valubale efforts you've made Mr ath111 cause you're helping students within this section.

Good luck ath111

[soliel d'or]

May Allah reward you !

thank you teacher , and my brothers !

[Farahcr7]

Peace upon u all
First of all Thanks for the great idea
I can help u guys with some Elements of literature giving by my teacher , I'm a 3rd year student
N plz I need help in didactics , our teacher gave us a reserch to do : we have to imagine ourselfs as teacher n doing the planing of one file ( we can choose any level we want ) so if someone can help me in that
PS : Im not asking for the whole work just how to start n some guid n Thanks a lot .


Now back to literature :
ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE
All fiction is based on conflict and this conflict is presented in a structured format called PLOT.
There are a number of different elements to a plot. They include:
Exposition
The introductory material which gives the setting, creates the tone, presents the characters,
and presents other facts necessary to understanding the story.
Foreshadowing
The use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in the story.
Inciting Force
The event or character that triggers the conflict.
Conflict
The essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually be identified as
one of four kinds. (Man versus…Man, Nature, Society, or Self)
Rising Action
A series of events that builds from the conflict. It begins with the i nciting force and ends with
the climax.
Crisis
The conflict reaches a turning point. At this point the opposing forces in the story meet and the
conflict becomes most intense. The crisis occurs before or at the same time as the climax.
Climax
The climax is the result of the crisis. It is the high point of the story for the reader. Frequently, it
is the moment of the highest interest and greatest emotion. The point at which the outcome of
the conflict can be predicted.
Falling Action
The events after the climax which close the story.
Resolution (Denouement)
Rounds out and concludes the action.
CHARACTERIZATION
MAJOR CHARACTERS
Almost always round or three-dimensional characters. They have good and bad qualities. Their
goals, ambitions and values change. A round character changes as a result of what happens to
him or her. A character who changes inside as a result of what happens to him is referred to in
literature as a DYNAMIC character. A dynamic character grows or progresses to a higher level of
understanding in the course of the story.
Protagonist
The main character in the
story
Antagonist
The character or force
that opposes the
protagonist.
Foil
A character who
provides a contrast to
the protagonist.
MINOR CHARACTERS
Almost always flat or two-dimensional characters. They have only one or two striking qualities.
Their predominant quality is not balanced by an opposite quality. They are usually all good or all
bad. Such characters can be interesting or amusing in their own right, but they lack depth. Flat
characters are sometimes referred to as STATIC characters because they do not change in the
course of the story.
POINT OF VIEW
First Person
The narrator is a character in the story who can reveal only personal thoughts and feelings and
what he or she sees and is told by other characters. He can’t tell us thoughts of other
characters.
Third-Person Objective
The narrator is an outsider who can report only what he or she sees and hears. This narrator
can tell us what is happening, but he can’t tell us the thoughts of the characters.
Third-Person Limited
The narrator is an outsider who sees into the mind of one of the characters.
Omniscient
The narrator is an all-knowing outsider who can enter the minds of more than one of t he
characters.
CONFLICT
Conflict is the essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually be
identified as one of four kinds.
Man versus Man
Conflict that pits one person against another.
Man versus Nature
A run-in with the forces of nature. On the one hand, it expresses the insignificance of a single
human life in the cosmic scheme of things. On the other hand, it tests the limits of a person’s
strength and will to live.
Man versus Society
The values and customs by which ev eryone else lives are being challenged. The character may
come to an untimely end as a result of his or her own convictions. The character may, on the
other hand, bring others around to a sympathetic point of view, or it may be decided that
society was right after all.
Man versus Self
Internal conflict. Not all conflict involves other people. Sometimes people are their own worst
enemies. An internal conflict is a good test of a character’s values. Does he give in to
temptation or rise above it? Does he dema nd the most from himself or settle for something
less? Does he even bother to struggle? The internal conflicts of a character and how they are
resolved are good clues to the character’s inner strength.
Often, more than one kind of conflict is taking place at the same time. In every case, however,
the existence of conflict enhances the reader’s understanding of a character and creates the
suspense and interest that make you want to continue reading.
FORESHADOWING
An author’s use of hints or clues to suggest events that will occur later in the story. Not all
foreshadowing is obvious. Frequently, future events are merely hinted at through dialogue,
description, or the attitudes and reactions of the characte rs.
Foreshadowing frequently serves two purposes. It builds suspense by raising questions that
encourage the reader to go on and find out more about the event that is being
foreshadowed. Foreshadowing is also a means of making a narrative more believable b y
partially preparing the reader for events which are to follow.
IRONY
Irony is the contrast between what is expected or what appears to be and what actually is.
Verbal Irony
The contrast between what is said and what is actually meant.

[M!ss_f@ti]

hello every body

thx a lot for opening this page

i need a help in american civilization ,, i have a research about Building the nation , istitutions and consittution

plz any information put it here

waiting for ur answers plllllz

thx a lot

[ath111]

American Civilization

Reconstruction

Introduction

Reconstruction was an era of unprecedented political conflict and of far-reaching changes in the nature of American government.
At the national level, new laws and constitutional amendments permanently altered the federal system and the definition of citizenship.
In the South, a politically mobilized black community joined with white allies to bring the Republican party to power, while excluding those accustomed to ruling the region.
The national debate over Reconstruction centred on three questions: On what terms should the defeated Confederacy be reunited with the Union? Who should establish these terms, Congress or the President? What should be the place of the former slaves in the political life of the South?
During the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln announced a lenient plan, with suffrage limited to whites, to attract Southern Confederates back to the Union. By the end of his life, however, Lincoln had come to favour extending the right to vote to educated blacks and former soldiers.
Lincoln's successor, Andrew Johnson, in 1865 put into effect his own Reconstruction plan, which gave the white South a free hand in establishing new governments. Many Northerners became convinced that Johnson's policy, and the actions of the governments he established, threatened to reduce African Americans to a condition similar to slavery, while allowing former "rebels" to regain political power in the South. As a result, Congress overturned Johnson's program.
Between 1866 and 1869, Congress enacted new laws and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing blacks' civil rights and giving black men the right to vote.
These measures for the first time enshrined in American law the principle that the rights of citizens could not be abridged because of race. And they led directly to the creation of new governments in the South elected by blacks as well as white - America's first experiment in interracial democracy
When the Civil War ended, leaders turned to the question of how to reconstruct the nation. One important issue was the right to vote. Hotly debated were rights of black American men and former Confederate men to vote. In the latter half of the 1860s, Congress passed a series of acts designed to address the question of rights, as well as how the Southern states would be governed. These acts included the act creating the Freedmen's Bureau, the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and several Reconstruction Acts. The Reconstruction Acts established military rule over Southern states until new governments could be formed. They also limited some former Confederate officials' and military officers' rights to vote and to run for public office. (However, the latter provisions were only temporary and soon rescinded for almost all of those affected by them.) Meanwhile, the Reconstruction acts gave former male slaves the right to vote and hold public office.
Congress also passed two amendments to the Constitution. The Fourteenth Amendment made African-Americans citizens and protected citizens from discriminatory state laws. Southern states were required to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment before being readmitted to the union. The Fifteenth Amendment guaranteed African American men the right to vote.
Most of the documents in this section are related to the right to vote and how voting actually occurred in Southern states. Other rights are also discussed in some of the documents. As you read the documents, weigh the various arguments that are made. Also, look for similarities with issues or concerns that have been raised in more recent U.S. history.
The aftermath of any war is difficult for the survivors. Those difficulties are usually even worse after a civil war. Such was certainly the case in the period after the American Civil War.
With several notable exceptions, most of the fighting during the Civil War took place in the South. As a result, most of the devastation of the war affected the South and its people to a much greater extent thanpeople in the North. In addition, portions of the South were occupied by Federal armies from virtually the very beginning of the war. Over time, Union forces occupied more and more Southern territory and governed those places as well.
Reconstruction was a period of political crisis and considerable violence. Most white Southerners envisioned a quick reunion in which white supremacy would remain intact in the South. In this vision, African Americans, while in some sense free, would have few civil rights and no voice in government. Many Northerners including President Andrew Johnson, who succeeded to office after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, shared these views. On the other hand, both black Southerners and the majority of Northern Republicans thought that before the Southern states were restored to their place in the Union, the federal government must secure the basic rights of former slaves.
In civil rights legislation and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, the Republican Congress wrote this policy into law. They were attempting, for the first time in history, to create a truly interracial democracy. Faced with violent opposition in the South and a retreat from the ideal of racial equality in the North, Reconstruction proved short-lived. It would take another century for the nation to begin to live up to this era's promise of equality for all its citizens.
VII.2 The Meaning of Freedom:
Black and White Responses to the End of Slavery
Confederate defeat and the end of slavery brought far-reaching changes in the lives of all Southerners. The destruction of slavery led inevitably to conflict between blacks seeking to breathe substantive meaning into their freedom by asserting their independence from white control, and whites seeking to retain as much as possible of the old order.
The meaning of freedom itself became a point of conflict in the Reconstruction South. Former slaves relished the opportunity to flaunt their liberation from the innumerable regulations of slavery.
Immediately after the Civil War, they sought to give meaning to freedom by reuniting families separated under slavery, establishing their own churches and schools, seeking economic autonomy, and demanding equal civil and political rights.
Most white Southerners reacted to defeat and emancipation with dismay. Many families had suffered the loss of loved ones and the destruction of property. Some thought of leaving the South altogether, or retreated into nostalgia for the Old South and the Lost Cause of the Confederacy.
In 1865 and 1866 many white Southerners joined memorial associations that established Confederate cemeteries and monuments throughout the region. Others, unwilling to accept a new relationship to former slaves, resorted to violent opposition to the new world being created around them.
Reconstruction in brief . . . a summary
Reconstruction was the attempt from 1865 to 1877 in U.S. history to resolve the issues of the American Civil War, when both the Confederacy and slavery were destroyed. Reconstruction addressed the return to the Union of the secessionist Southern states, the status of the leaders of the Confederacy, and the Constitutional and legal status of the Negro Freedmen. Violent controversy erupted over how to tackle those issues, and by the late 1870s Reconstruction had failed to equally integrate the Freedmen into the legal, political, economic and social system. "Reconstruction" is also the common name for the entire history of the era 1865 to 1877.
Reconstruction came in three phases. Presidential Reconstruction, 1863-66 was controlled by Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, with the goal of quickly reuniting the country. Their moderate programs were opposed by the Radical Republicans, a political faction that gained power after the 1866 elections and began Congressional Reconstruction, 1866-1873 emphasizing civil rights and voting rights for the Freedmen. A Republican coalition of Freedmen, Carpetbaggers and Southern Unionists controlled most of the southern states. In the so-called Redemption, 1873-77, white supremacist Southerners (calling themselves "Redeemers") defeated the Republicans and took control of each southern state, marking the end of Reconstruction.
Radical Republican Charles Sumner argued that secession had destroyed statehood alone but the Constitution still extended its authority and its protection over individuals, as in the territories. Thaddeus Stevens and his followers viewed secession as having left the states in a status like newly conquered territory.
Congress rejected Johnson's argument that he had the war power to decide what to do, since the war was now over. Congress decided it had the primary authority to decide because the Constitution said the Congress had to guarantee each state a republican form of government; the issue became how republicanism should operate in the South.

[ath111]

Reconstruction, 1865–77: The South during Reconstruction

In the South the Reconstruction period was a time of readjustment accompanied by disorder. Southern whites wished to keep African Americans in a condition of quasi-servitude, extending few civil rights and firmly rejecting social equality. African Americans, on the other hand, wanted full freedom and, above all, land of their own. Inevitably, there were frequent clashes. Some erupted into race riots, but acts of terrorism against individual African American leaders were more common.
During this turmoil, Southern whites and blacks began to work out ways of getting their farms back into operation and of making a living. Indeed, the most important developments of the Reconstruction era were not the highly publicized political contests but the slow, almost imperceptible changes that occurred in Southern society. African Americans could now legally marry, and they set up conventional and usually stable family units; they quietly seceded from the white churches and formed their own religious organizations, which became centres for the African American community. Without land or money, most freedmen had to continue working for white masters; but they were now unwilling to labour in gangs or to live in the old slave quarters under the eye of the plantation owner.

Sharecropping gradually became the accepted labour system in most of the South—planters, short of capital, favoured the system because it did not require them to pay cash wages; African Americans preferred it because they could live in individual cabins on the tracts they rented and because they had a degree of independence in choosing what to plant and how to cultivate. The section as a whole, however, was desperately poor throughout the Reconstruction era; and a series of disastrously bad crops in the late 1860s, followed by the general agricultural depression of the 1870s, hurt both whites and blacks.

The governments set up in the Southern states under the congressional program of Reconstruction were, contrary to traditional clichés, fairly honest and effective. Though the period has sometimes been labeled “Black Reconstruction,” the Radical governments in the South were never dominated by African Americans. There were no black governors, only two black senators and a handful of congressmen, and only one legislature controlled by blacks. Those African Americans who did hold office appear to have been similar in competence and honesty to the whites. It is true that these Radical governments were expensive, but large state expenditures were necessary to rebuild after the war and to establish—for the first time in most Southern states—a system of common schools. Corruption there certainly was, though nowhere on the scale of the Tweed Ring, which at that time was busily looting New York City; but it is not possible to show that Republicans were more guilty than Democrats, or blacks than whites, in the scandals that did occur.
Though some Southern whites in the mountainous regions and some planters in the rich bottomlands were willing to cooperate with the African Americans and their Northern-born “carpetbagger” allies in these new governments, there were relatively few such “scalawags”; the mass of Southern whites remained fiercely opposed to African American political, civil, and social equality. Sometimes their hostility was expressed through such terrorist organizations as the Ku Klux Klan, which sought to punish so-called “uppity Negroes” and to drive their white collaborators from the South. More frequently it was manifested through support of the Democratic Party, which gradually regained its strength in the South and waited for the time when the North would tire of supporting the Radical regimes and would withdraw federal troops from the South.

The Ulysses S. Grant administrations, 1869–77

During the two administrations of President Grant there was a gradual attrition of Republican strength. As a politician the president was passive, exhibiting none of the brilliance he had shown on the battlefield. His administration was tarnished by the dishonesty of his subordinates, whom he loyally defended. As the older Radical leaders—men like Sumner, Wade, and Stevens—died, leadership in the Republican Party fell into the hands of technicians like Roscoe Conkling and James G. Blaine, men devoid of the idealistic fervour that had marked the early Republicans. At the same time, many Northerners were growing tired of the whole Reconstruction issue and were weary of the annual outbreaks of violence in the South that required repeated use of federal force. Efforts to shore up the Radical regimes in the South grew increasingly unsuccessful. The adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment (1870), prohibiting discrimination in voting on account of race, had little effect in the South, where terrorist organizations and economic pressure from planters kept African Americans from the polls. Nor were three Force Acts passed by the Republicans (1870–71), giving the president the power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus and imposing heavy penalties upon terroristic organizations, in the long run more successful. If they succeeded in dispersing the Ku Klux Klan as an organization, they also drove its members, and their tactics, more than ever into the Democratic camp.
Growing Northern disillusionment with Radical Reconstruction and with the Grant administration became evident in the Liberal Republican movement of 1872, which resulted in the nomination of the erratic Horace Greeley for president. Though Grant was overwhelmingly reelected, the true temper of the country was demonstrated in the congressional elections of 1874, which gave the Democrats control of the House of Representatives for the first time since the outbreak of the Civil War. Despite Grant's hope for a third term in office, most Republicans recognized by 1876 that it was time to change both the candidate and his Reconstruction program, and the nomination of Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio, a moderate Republican of high principles and of deep sympathy for the South, marked the end of the Radical domination of the Republican Party.

The circumstances surrounding the disputed election of 1876 strengthened Hayes's intention to work with the Southern whites, even if it meant abandoning the few Radical regimes that remained in the South. In an election marked by widespread fraud and many irregularities, the Democratic candidate, Samuel J. Tilden, received the majority of the popular vote; but the vote in the Electoral College was long in doubt. In order to resolve the impasse, Hayes's lieutenants had to enter into agreement with Southern Democratic congressmen, promising to withdraw the remaining federal troops from the South, to share the Southern patronage with Democrats, and to favour that section's demands for federal subsidies in the building of levees and railroads. Hayes's inauguration marked, for practical purposes, the restoration of “home rule” for the South—i.e., that the North would no longer interfere in Southern elections to protect African Americans and that the Southern whites would again take control of their state governments.

Congressional Reconstruction: 1866–73

Republicans in Congress attempted to wrest control of Reconstruction policies. They passed legislation over President Johnson's vetoes. They passed constitutional amendments against his wishes. In short, they attempted to direct Reconstruction. However, the most 'radical' policy proposals never became laws. Although several Republicans in Congress styled themselves 'Radicals', they did not form a majority in either house. It is therefore inaccurate to refer to this period as Radical Reconstruction, a term popularized by anti-Reconstruction Southern Conservatives, and instead the term Congressional Reconstruction is preferred by most 21st century historians

[ath111]

Presidential Reconstruction

After helping to push through the 13th Amendment, abolishing slavery, President sought to quickly restore the rebel states to the Union. He considered Reconstruction a "restoration" and wanted to quickly readmit the former Confederate states after they had repudiated their ordinances of secession, accepted the 13th Amendment, repudiated the Confederate debt, and pledged loyalty to the Union.
Johnson's vision of Reconstruction clashed with that of many Republicans. He vetoed a string of Republican-backed measures, including an extension of the Freedman's Bureau and the first Civil Rights bill. He ordered black families evicted from land on which they had been settled by the U.S. Army. He acquiesced in the Black Codes which southern state governments enacted to reduce former slaves to the status of dependent plantation laborers.

Constitutional amendments

Three new Constitutional amendments were adopted. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery and was ratified in 1865. The 14th Amendment was rejected in 1866 but ratified in 1868, guaranteeing citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, except Native Americans, and granting them federal civil rights. The 15th Amendment passed in 1870, decreeing that the right to vote could not be denied because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The amendment did not declare the vote an unconditional right and only prohibited these specific types of discrimination while specific electoral policies were determined within each state. Notably, the 15th Amendment did not mention the right of women to vote.

Statutes

Congress clarified the scope of the federal writ of habeas corpus to allow federal courts to vacate unlawful state court convictions or sentences in 1867 (28 U.S.C. § 2254).

Re-admission to the union

• Tennessee - July 24, 1866
• Arkansas - June 22, 1868
• Florida - June 25, 1868
• North Carolina - July 4, 1868
• South Carolina - July 9, 1868
• Louisiana - July 9, 1868
• Alabama - July 13, 1868
• Virginia - January 26, 1870
• Mississippi - February 23, 1870
• Texas - March 30, 1870
• Georgia - July 15, 1870

Military reconstruction

With the Radicals in control Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts in 1867. The first Reconstruction Act placed ten Confederate states under military control, grouping them into five military districts:[14]
• First Military District: Virginia, under General John Schofield
• Second Military District: The Carolinas, under General Daniel Sickles
• Third Military District: Georgia, Alabama and Florida, under General John Pope
• Fourth Military District: Arkansas and Mississippi, under General Edward Ord
• Fifth Military District: Texas and Louisiana, under Generals Philip Sheridan and Winfield Scott Hancock
Tennessee was not made part of a military district (having already been readmitted to the Union), and therefore federal controls did not apply.
The ten Southern state governments were re-constituted under the direct control of the United States Army. There was little or no fighting, but rather a state of martial law in which the military closely supervised local government, supervised elections, and protected office holders from violence.[15] Blacks were enrolled as voters; former Confederate leaders were excluded.[Foner 1988 p 274–5] No one state was entirely representative. Here is what happened in Texas

The first critical step … was the registration of voters according to guidelines established by Congress and interpreted by Generals Sheridan and Griffin. The Reconstruction Acts called for registering all adult males, white and black, except those who had ever sworn an oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States and then engaged in rebellion.… Sheridan interpreted these restrictions stringently, barring from registration not only all pre-1861 officials of state and local governments who had supported the Confederacy but also all city officeholders and even minor functionaries such as sextons of cemeteries. In May Griffin … appointed a three-man board of registrars for each county, making his choices on the advice of known Unionists and local Freedman's Bureau agents. In every county where practicable a freedman served as one of the three registrars.… Final registration amounted to approximately 59,633 whites and 49,479 blacks. It is impossible to say how many whites were rejected or refused to register (estimates vary from 7,500 to 12,000), but blacks, who constituted only about 30 percent of the state's population, were significantly overrepresented at 45 percent of all voters. [17]
All Southern states were readmitted to the Union by the end of 1870, the last being Georgia. All but 500 top Confederate leaders were pardoned when President Grant signed the Amnesty Act of 1872.

[M!ss_f@ti]

may allah bless u brother

thx a lot for ur help

[marryangelina]

hi
please i need your help urgent
i asked for help many times but no one realy answered me and i even was not able to find some of my request topics
so could you please provide me with an idea about functionalism history and its relation to functional grammar , and a comarison between functional grammar and other grammar
thank you in advance

[ath111]

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة marryangelina

hi
please i need your help urgent
i asked for help many times but no one realy answered me and i even was not able to find some of my request topics
so could you please provide me with an idea about functionalism history and its relation to functional grammar , and a comarison between functional grammar and other grammar
thank you in advance

https://www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Milli...ctionalism.htm

https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/functionalism.htm