فقرات انجليزية مهمة

mihra · 2013-04-21, 12:35

here are some of the written expressions that could be included in this year's baccalaurteat exam
all i need is your prayers and a tiny little thank you

subject n1
prepare a short talk about the following topic
"modern civilization has kept changing at fast space

A century ago, people were able to live in better conditions than their parents thanks to the progress made in science and technology. But in practice, the outcome of this progress was slow to materialize. For instance, most people still used to travel long distances on foot or by stage coach. And as mechanization was not introduced significantly in daily activities, household chores still had to be done manually, and were therefore time consuming.
On the other hand, community life was still an asset for social cohesion, since people had more opportunities to meet and interact. So they were able to chat with neighbors at shops or in clubs and have a cup of coffee with friends or relatives and tell stories and jokes. Likewise, family visits were frequent and kept the folklore alive, with the grandparents who used to tell traditional tales or sing lullabies or folk songs to their grandchildren. Unfortunately, with the development of audiovisual means such as the cinema, radio, television and then personal appliances like the computer, CD-roms and DVDs, the chances of socialization are dwindling and the lack of interaction between people may increase stress, loneliness and anxiety.
Could we then complain that we are missing out on some ingredients in life which used to make our great grandparents happier? This is probably so, since closer contacts among neighbors, friends and families had to be beneficial for communal harmony. However, scientific progress in all fields, particularly in medicine, modes of transportation and communication, and agribusiness can only show that our lives are today quite fulfilling and, if anything, more comfortable than a century ago.

Subject n02

write an essay about the challenges faced by modern civilization

There are three major threats to our civilization, which can lead to the destruction of mankind. We have first nuclear energy, which has been a constant liability ever since the explosion of atomic bombs in 1945; there is also pollution, a major cause for concern with the massive and noxious increase in industrial activities and mechanization; finally, climate change constitutes another threat, as an outcome of the first two mentioned problems.
The escalation of nuclear weaponry since World War Two has exposed humanity to a nuclear war that would not compare at all with Hiroshima and Nagasaki, since it could wipe out life on earth many times over. The Cold War was a period of tension between the two most heavily equipped nations in terms of nuclear warheads, the USA and the USSR. The Détente that came after did not suppress all worries, since other countries have the bomb, and could use it any time.
There are also indirect consequences to owning nuclear energy. Indeed, a lethal form of pollution can originate from it if accidents in nuclear power plants occur. But apparently less dangerous forms of pollution, generated by an ever- increasing industrialization, can also cause severe illnesses and deaths. We can think of all the chemicals dumped by factories underground, or in rivers and seas, or of the enormous amounts of smoke emitted in the air by factories and vehicles. All of these are causing all sorts of illnesses in humans and threatening wildlife.
Apart from these direct consequences, the third threat to our civilization, climate change, is directly related to the first two mentioned. Smoke has resulted in the greenhouse effect, responsible for the increase in mean temperature in the world. Consequently, the ice caps in the north and south poles are shrinking, the sea level is rising, rains have become irregular, hurricanes are more frequent, monsoons are more destructive, and droughts have intensified, and have reached usually wet parts of the world. Therefore, the danger of famine is real, and can even lead to dramatic wars over the possession of the meager resources remaining. Surely the impending threat of nuclear warfare, and the lethal chemicals spread in the environment make the world a dangerous place to live. The tons of smoke sent out in the atmosphere also constitute a health hazard, and are responsible for climate change. There are indeed urgent measures to be taken by governments to make human activities safer if our civilization is to survive and thrive.

Subject 02

fighting fraud and corruption

Dear fellow citizens,
Corruption is an evil that must be fought now! In order to win this fight I urge all people of good will to unite around me.
If I were elected Head of State, I would implement the following anti-corruption program. To begin with, I would appoint dedicated civil servants who would work honestly for the country: stealing money or accepting a bribe in exchange for a service is unethical

and illegal. Next, I would pass stringent laws to protect citizens and punish embezzling and bribe-taking. I cannot tolerate that honest citizens be the victims of corrupt civil servants.
I would also fight tax evasion and capital flight. Those who earn a lot of money must pay their taxes and contribute to the development of the country. Therefore any tax evader would be severely punished by specially appointed tribunals.
Finally, I would rehabilitate the value of work. Mutual trust is a moral value that we should teach our children from infancy. A little money earned honestly brings a lot of happiness and peace of mind.
To conclude, I could tell you, fellow countrymen that your
role as citizens is indispensable to fight corruption. No government can succeed without the help of civil society. Therefore, I urge you again to gather around me to win this decisive battle. Vote for honesty ! Vote for me!

Subject 03

write an opinion article about counterfeiting disadvantages

some people argue that counterfeiting benefits consumers by giving them access to lower-price goods. This is a totally mistaken claim. First, imitated goods are poor quality and do not last long. There is then no guarantee of value for money and more importantly, that fake goods are safe. Imagine how much damage low quality parts fitted in a car can do to the driver and passengers when they fail!
Secondly, if we think of fake foods or medicines, and the criminal procedures used by the people who make them, we can only remain firm on buying genuine products. There are several cases of substitute edibles which have caused dangerous diseases to people and which have resulted in long-lasting law suits. The outcomes could only be compensations paid for irreparable damage but the moral damage caused to the victims can never be repaired! Recent figures released by the European Union show that the customs are confiscating 100 million fake items every year.
Thirdly, it is highly immoral to reap where other people have sown. Pirating products is indeed imitating other people’s property, and refusing to engage in a creative act. It is much more rewarding to turn one’s abilities to creating new objects of value that could serve the community, or improve the performance of existing ones.
Fourthly, pirating objects is by essence theft, especially when the producer of a fake item affixes the label of a well-known trade mark on it. Some countries are notorious for their practice of counterfeit objects. One wouldn’t like Algerians to be known for practicing this dubious trade, as much as one wouldn’t like to see them buy cheap, fake products and head into unsuspected troubles.

subject 04

write a letter to a friend describing your school

Dear Linda,
Today, I’ll write to you about my school. And the least I can say is that I feel quite happy and comfortable in it.
First, let me mention its old stone building, surrounded by a nice flower garden. The flowers are carefully arranged, and in spring, they give off a nice scent when we head for the classes through the garden. Further back, there are two large courtyards with enough space and benches to play or relax. There are also big, ancient olive trees near the walls, where birds perch and nest. We can hear them warble and chirp all year round.
Let me also describe my classroom. It is large and well decorated, with old-fashioned brown desks, and posters and pictures all over the walls. And then, there are those cabinets full of books which smell of old paper. Actually, I like borrowing a book from to time and dream of all the adventures and mysteries I read about.
I’ll finally say a few words about my teachers. I’m lucky to have such good and considerate people around me. They are so keen to see the students do well. They are always prepared to answer our questions, and they really want to make sure we understand the hard parts of the lessons and exercises. I like the way teachers get us involved. They surely have children of their own at school, which explains why they understand how we feel.
So if there is one good reason why I like my school, it surely is because the teaching staffs are so caring, and so friendly. I can’t dream of a better school!

Subject 05

prepare a speech about the the possible changes that are likely to happen in our lifestyle

we may live a totally different life in the next few decades because modernity has brought with it a new life style. Nowadays people take less time to eat, go to fast food shops to gulp hamburgers, hot dogs and chips. In the future, we might have conventional food being replaced by food substitutes like pills, or we might get our nutrients out of crude oil; that would shorten meal times even further. Conversely, many people are prepared to spend more time shopping in supermarkets (and even on the Internet). A lot of them are now becoming shopaholics, buying products that they don’t really need. Their number will rise further in the near future.
This is partly because it is much easier to shop, especially as more and more supermarkets are equipped with fast serving cash desks which prevent long queues. In the future, shop assistants may be replaced by robots which could actually do the same job as them, with greater efficiency and in less time. That of course would probably have side effects like an increase in unemployment.
Leisure will also change, because of the development of all sorts of electronic devices, like the multimedia, cable television and other contrivances. People will be less tempted to go out for a film, a play or a concert. They’ll pay even less visits to each other because the cell phone is such a convenient way to keep in touch. And what to say about the Internet through which people can instantly chat with and watch each other via the web cam! Alternatively, we’ll have more free time to enjoy holidays at lower prices in distant places. But is this life of the future the kind of life people would like to have? Couldn’t modernity preserve social relations and be a means to an end rather than an end in itself?

Subject 06 food safety

Food safety has become one of the major worries for mankind. This worry has three major sources: the chemical contamination of agricultural products, the use of additives, preservatives and colorings in a large number of food products and the consumption of ready-made food.
Perhaps the first cause for worry about food safety is the highly intensive mode of farming and agribusiness now prevailing in industrialized countries. This has led big companies to use chemicals, fertilizers and pesticides to ensure maximum output. As a result, fruits and vegetables are contaminated by chemicals which may prove harmful to our health.
The second cause for concern is again related to mass production, and the need to keep products fresh and attractive. Consumer requirements have led manufacturers to introduce colorings, additives and preservatives. Some of them have been suspected of being dangerous while others have definitely been classified as harmful by independent research laboratories. Scientists maintain that some colourings and sugar substitutes can cause cancer, diabetes and other ****bolic disorders.
Finally, fast food and ready-made meals have led people to take undesirable eating habits, like nibbling at work or at home, or having frequent snacks in front of the computer or the TV set. More worrying is the fact that the younger generation are the most prone to consume fast food and soft drinks. These eating habits, as shown in “advanced” countries especially, have caused a large part of the population to become overweight or obese, and to develop diseases like diabetes or high blood pressure. These are due to an excess consumption of animal fat and fried food, as well as sugar and salt.
In conclusion, the conjunction of contaminated agricultural products, processed foods and poor eating habits is indeed a good reason to worry about food safety and to take corrective measures to change or improve our attitudes to eating.

Subject 07

a presentation of the moon

The Moon is an earth satellite orbiting our planet from a distance of 384,000kms on average, and its orbit is in a west-to-east direction. Its surface gravity is only 0.16 that of the Earth (one sixth), and it does not seem to have life on it, since it has neither atmosphere nor water. Minimum and maximum temperatures on it are wide apart, with +110˚C on the sunlit side and –170˚C in lunar nights. The geology of this satellite is rock only, and its age is about 4,6 billion years.
Plans to reach the Moon on space crafts have been on scientists’ minds since early 20th century. But they became more concrete when the Russians launched space crafts Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2 in 1957, the second one carrying dog Laika. In 1961, Yuri Gagarin orbited the Earth, followed by the American astronaut John Glenn in 1962. Finally, America won the honour of reaching the Moon before Russia, when Neil Armstrong set foot on it on July 21st 1969.
There are at present plans to build a space base on the Moon, to set a giant telescope and launch space ships from there to distant planets, and perhaps to other solar systems.

Subject 08
what would happen if a comet collided with the earth???

I sometimes think with awe about the possible consequences for life on earth if a comet collided with our planet. I can imagine it hurtling through the atmosphere before it makes its terrible impact on some part of a continent. Scientists do say that a similar incident took place many thousand years ago, and provoked the extinction of many giant animal species, including dinosaurs.
An enormous crater would form, and possibly cause a volcanic eruption which would send a heavy layer of particles and ash high up in the sky to stop the sun rays from reaching the Earth. Our planet would then be in the dark for many years, and consequently the temperatures would drop considerably.
A change in the climate could indeed occur, rainfalls and snowfalls would be frequent, heavy and long lasting, and floods would result from them; the sea level would probably rise, and cause some flat regions of the Earth to be totally immersed.
Another possible consequence of the impact would be a gigantic earthquake which would destroy many inhabited areas and kill a huge number of people. If the impact were near an ocean, a tsunami could develop and flood vast areas of flat land, causing many people to die or become homeless.
Facts in the past have shown that a disaster like an impact of a heavenly body on Earth could destroy life, or at least alter living conditions dramatically. The same could be repeated if another collision occurred. This is why scientists are thinking up space programs to find ways of preventing another accident of this kind.

Subject 09

solar eclipse

a solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes in front of the Sun as seen from Earth, and can happen only at new Moon. During a total eclipse the Sun’s corona can be seen. A total solar eclipse can last up to 7.5 minutes. When the Moon is at its farthest from the Earth it does not completely cover the face of the Sun, leaving a ring of sunlight visible. This is an annular eclipse. Between two and five solar eclipses occur each year but each is visible only from a specific area. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes into the shadow of the Earth, becoming dim until emerging from the shadow. Lunar eclipses may be partial or total, and they can happen only at full Moon. Total lunar eclipses last up to 100 minutes; the maximum number each year is three.
A total solar eclipse visible from southwestern England took place on 11 August 1999 and lasted for two minutes. This was the first total solar eclipse to be visible from the UK since 1927; the next will be in 2090.

subject 10

imagine you are an agony aunt giving advice for teenagers about the panic that comes with the baccalaureate exam

Dear Miserable,
I’m very sorry to hear that you are having difficulty coping with stress and anxiety, due to the forthcoming final examination. I more than sympathise with your being depressed. Let me tell you however that taking a few commonsense steps would restore confidence and cheerfulness in you.
I think you are working too hard, and not taking enough time for breaks. Do you know that cramming and doing exercises endlessly produce more anxiety in you? That’s why you don’t feel you have time to spare for your friends, and to enjoy some of the pleasures of life you are entitled to.
So, as I said, you should relax and sleep regularly, meanwhile leaving your brain to process the hardest points of lessons and activities. You should go out for walks or practice some sport everyday to help you relax. You ought not to worry constantly about the time when your exam occurs, lest you would lose your concentration on the appointed day.
Think that after all, you have reached a good level of competence, and that you have enough strategies at this stage to decide how to organize your work. Let me tell you again that when the exam comes, always start with the things you can do easily and leave time for the most tricky parts.
I’m sure that when the time comes, you will be able to overcome your stress and perform quite successfully.
I wish you all the best.
Aunt Hillary

subject 11

describe the feelings and emotions expected from Algerian in various situations

The death of a close friend or a relative, the occurrence of a natural disaster or an accident, and other fatalities are likely to generate different feelings and emotions in people.
Actually the difference in reaction is more particularly a question of gender. Men will tend to hide their grief over the death of somebody they know, or their awe when they witness a tragedy; during a natural disaster, they will try not to panic and control their emotions; instead, they will react by taking steps to protect their families and neighbors. Women will show their emotions more openly. They will express their sadness and mourning, and cry profusely when they learn about a relative’s death. Likewise, they will be rather shocked and terrified when they see an accident in which there are casualties. Finally, they are likely lose their self- control, and fail to take the right decisions to protect themselves in an emergency.
The difference in response regarding the expression of love and affection will most likely follow the same pattern. Men always try to avoid excessive sentimentality. They generally avoid showing in verbal manner too much emotion and feelings to their families and friends; they will express their care in a different way; for instance by showing concern, offering help or giving presents. Women are again prone to showing their feelings more openly. They would more often than not use terms of endearment, and they often hug and kiss family members, especially children.
The differing levels of sensitivity between men and women concerning the facts of life are probably the reason why their marks of sympathy and affection are dissimilar. But the male and female attitudes are complementary, and both necessary for good human interaction.

mihra · 2013-04-21, 13:56

Topic19:

Write a composition on the conception of corruption.
Typical Essay:

There is an old axiom often applied to those with political ambitions: Power corrupts; absolute power corrupts absolutely. In this case, the term corruption means the abuse of a public office for personal gain or other illegal or immoral benefit. Political corruption is a recognized criminal offense, along with bribery, extortion, and embezzlement – three illegal acts often associated with corruption in office. Some forms of corruption may escape legal notice, such as the hiring of relatives for key positions, but they may not escape the scrutiny of voters on Election Day.
Whenever a person accepts a political appointment or wins election to an office, he or she must take an oath to uphold the public trust. While this may sound noble on paper, enforcement of this oath can prove problematic. Very few political candidates successfully reach office without making a few promises along the way. Many of these campaign promises are harmless, such as sponsoring a bill or lobbying for more funding for schools. Other promises, however, may come closer to crossing an ethical line, such as hiring relatives or awarding government contracts to influential contributors.
Political corruption has been a fact of life for thousands of years, beginning with the first attempts at a democratic form of government in ancient Greece and Rome. Almost all of these countries' political representatives were from the wealthier class, which inevitably led to a division between the influential haves and the virtually powerless have-nots. The seeds of political corruption were planted as soon as the senators and other political leaders realized that power and wealth could be equals. Political corruption often begins with favoritism towards those with wealth and influence.
In the modern sense of the term, political corruption is a cancer on the integrity of a governmental body. Very few public officials begin their careers with the intention of becoming corrupt, but some succumb to a sinister form of peer pressure over time. Being placed in a position of significant political power can be overwhelming, and the temptation to bend or break rules for a perceived 'greater good' is always present.
There are a few experienced politicians, however, for whom political corruption is a natural state of being. History is filled with examples of corrupt public officials, such as New York City's Boss Tweed and his political cronies at Tammany Hall during the late 19th century. Charges ranging from bribery and graft to nepotism, racketeering and fraud were all leveled at Tweed's administration, but it was Tweed's skills in political corruption that kept law enforcement at bay for years. A number of judges and law enforcement officers were already on Boss Tweed's secret payroll. Political corruption may always remain a concern for democratic governments, but there are a number of independent checks and balances that can root out corruption before it affects the integrity of the political body as a whole.

Topic20:

Write a composition on embezzlement.

Typical Essay:

Embezzling is the act of taking money that has been placed in your trust but belongs to another person. For instance, someone who works in a bank may secretly steal money that he or she has been entrusted to look after. This money belongs to the bank's customers, and the employee's action can be considered embezzling.
One of the major methods used in embezzling is to falsify records and documents. A recent British case involved a bank manager embezzling 23 million GB pounds (GBP). The bank manager set up many false bank accounts and deposited millions from other bank accounts into them.
Another very successful method of falsifying records is the phantom employee. The manager may create a job role and documents for an employee who does not actually exist. The phantom employee is then paid a salary.
Even charities are threatened by embezzlement. One of the most common methods used in this case is to redirect large amounts of money for administrative purposes. Sadly, many worthwhile charities have been shut down as a result of this type of embezzling.

Topic21:

Write a composition on bribery.
Typical Essay:

A bribe is a form of corruption which involves the promise of money or a favor to someone in a position of power, with the hope of influencing that person's behavior. Bribery is viewed as a crime in many regions of the world, and people who are caught offering or receiving bribes may face hefty penalties. In other regions, the line between bribing and tipping is sometimes rather blurred, which can make it difficult to prosecute people for bribery, or to understand when one has crossed the line.
There are several reasons why bribery is viewed as a crime. In the first place, accepting a bribe and acting on it is a clear misuse of power, and a dereliction of duty. In egalitarian societies, the thought of greasing the way with bribes is especially distasteful, because it highlights the differences between those who can buy power or favors, and those who cannot. A bribe may also compromise the quality of a transaction. For example, when a construction firm bribes a government official to get a contract, the government official may overlook a company which provides superior or cheaper work, thereby essentially cheating the government.
Bribes can take any number of forms. Historically, bribes to public officials have been extremely common, and in some regions, this continues to be the case. Bribes also play a role in the financial industry, and even in occupations like medicine, where doctors may be bribed by drug companies to prescribe their products. Politics is also rife with bribery in many region, with people bribing politicians to achieve desired ends, and politicians in turn offering bribes to others in the hopes of attaining specific goals, like winning an election.
Drawing the line with bribes is very challenging. For example, many politicians receive healthy campaign contributions from an assortment of companies and industries. These payments could be viewed as bribes in the eyes of some critics, especially when the politicians vote and act in the interests of their biggest contributors. However, it could also be argued that these companies are certainly entitled to support candidates they like, especially when those candidates have political beliefs which align with the interests of the company.
Likewise, the practice of offering a bribe to ministry officials in some countries is so widespread that bribes are viewed almost like set fees. People who attempt to act with integrity may find that the ministry in question never approves a request or a document, thus forcing them to bribe an official to get the job done. In some cases, such bribes are even tax-deductible, with tax agencies recognizing them as a legitimate business expense.

Topic22:

Write a composition on money laundering.
Typical Essay:

Money laundering refers to the process of concealing financial transactions. Various laundering techniques can be employed by individuals, groups, officials and corporations. The goal of a money laundering operation is usually to hide either the source or the destination of money.
Perhaps the best way to understand the concept is to take a look at some common examples. Suppose, for example, that an employee was stealing large sums of cash from her employer without getting caught. If she was to make large deposits into her bank account, some regulator (or computer program) might notice the unusually large deposits, thereby increasing the chances of getting caught. To launder the money, the criminal might simply use the cash to make purchases and then resell the items in a legitimate market. The revenue gained from these sales is 'cleaner' and the criminal is drawing less attention to herself.
The example provided above is a particularly simple example that involves a non-cash step; actual money laundering operations are often complex assortments of various transactions. The term 'money laundering' is typically used to refer to any financial transaction that is not kept transparent. Needless to say, the practice is illegal and large penalties, fines or imprisonment may ensue.

Topic23:

Write a composition on tax evasion.

Typical Essay:

Tax evasion is usually understood to be an act in which an individual intentionally chooses to not pay income taxes due. This act of not paying taxes may be conducted by simply chooses to not file an income tax return, or choosing to not include information about taxable income on the filed return. In all instances, tax evasion can be considered to be fraud, and usually carries stiff penalties.
While there are some that consider any type of omission from the tax return to constitute tax evasion, it is important to remember that it is possible to omit an item simply because the data was overlooked when filing the return. Thus, the intent of the individual plays a key role in determining if tax evasion has taken place.
However, when it can be demonstrated that the individual willfully attempted to hide information about income that was subject to withholding, the tax agency may choose to impose more than a simple interest fine on the amount omitted. The filer may be subject to stiff fines associated with the deliberate failure to file an accurate tax return, or even possibly face prosecution and some time spent in jail for the intentional negligence.
Tax evasion is considered a crime, and is often classified as fraud. All citizens suffer from tax evasion, as the act prevents the government from collecting funds to use for the operation of essential services to the population. When these funds are not collected, services have to be curtailed and thus result in a lower quality of life for all citizens.
Persons who become aware of an error on calculating taxes on reported income or notice that income was inadvertently left off the tax return for a given period should contact the tax agency and make arrangements to file an amended return as soon as possible. This will help to minimize the chances of being suspected of tax evasion, and allow the matter to be settled before interest charges become significant.

Topic24:

Write a composition on creative accounting.
Typical Essay:

Creative accounting, also called aggressive accounting, is the manipulation of financial numbers, usually within the letter of the law and accounting standards, but very much against their spirit and certainly not providing the "true and fair" view of a company that accounts are supposed to.
A typical aim of creative accounting will be to inflate profit figures. Some companies may also reduce reported profits in good years to smooth results. Assets and liabilities may also be manipulated, either to remain within limits such as debt covenants, or to hide problems.
Typical creative accounting tricks include off balance sheet financing, over-optimistic revenue recognition and the use of exaggerated non-recurring items.
The term "window dressing" has similar meaning when applied to accounts, but is a broader term that can be applied to other areas. In the US it is often used to describe the manipulation of investment portfolio performance numbers. In the context of accounts, "window dressing" is more likely than "creative accounting" to imply illegal or fraudulent practices, but it need to do so.

Topic25:

Write a composition on currency counterfeiting.

Typical Essay:

Counterfeiting refers to the imitation of something with the intent to deceive. As a general rule, people use the term specifically to refer to people who replicate currency in the hopes of passing it off as legal tender. However, a variety of things can be counterfeited, from designer handbags to legal documents. In terms of counterfeiting money, counterfeiting comes with severe consequences, as it is treated as a very serious crime in most nations around the world.
Most modern counterfeiting is focused on paper money, because paper money has a higher face value. Counterfeiters use a variety of techniques to produce replicas of the desired currency, depending on the security features which a nation uses to protect the integrity of its money and the level of realism desired. For example, a color photocopier can sometimes render a credible replica of legal currency, especially when the currency is run through a washer to age it, but counterfeiters may also use sophisticated printing techniques like those used at a national mint.
Most mints around the world use a number of safety systems to protect their money. For example, many nations print engraved money, meaning that specially engraved plates which are very hard to replicate are used in the production of currency. Many countries also use specialized papers and inks, along with complex designs which are hard to copy, and they may change the look of their currency frequently in an attempt to foil counterfeiters.
Someone who is convicted of counterfeiting will spend at least a decade in prison. He or she may also be forced to pay fines or restitution, and the property used in the counterfeiting process may be seized. Counterfeiting is treated as an extremely serious crime because it devalues a nation's currency, potentially threatening its economic stability and global standi

Topic26:

Write a composition on extortion.
Typical Essay:
Extortion is a crime which involves the illegal acquisition of money, property, or favors through the use of force, or the threat of force. Historically, extortion was defined as an abuse of privilege on the part of a public official who used his or her position to get money or favors, but today, people at all levels of society could potentially commit extortion. Penalties for extortion vary, depending on the specifics of the crime. In some countries, extortion is treated especially seriously because it is linked with organized crime, and sometimes special laws are designed to make it easier to prosecute and punish extortion.
To the casual ear, extortion can sound very similar to blackmail, in which people use a threat to demand payments or favors, and robbery, in which a criminal takes something by force. However, extortion is slightly different from both of these crimes. In blackmail, someone threatens to do something which is entirely legal, such as publishing a set of photographs, with the blackmailee offering payment to avoid exposure and humiliation. Extortion is entirely illegal, as it involves threats of violence or other illegal acts.
In a robbery, the violence is very real, and also very immediate. In extortion, violence may never progress beyond the stage of being a threat, assuming that the person being extorted pays up. For example, if someone is threatened at gunpoint and ordered to surrender all valuables, this is a robbery. If, on the other hand, a criminal strolls into a shop and threatens to shoot the clerk's family unless the criminal receives a share of the store's income each week, this is extortion.
Organized crime is perhaps the most famous user of extortion. For example, members of the Mafia have historically demanded “protection money” from businesses, suggesting that if the businesses don't pay up, they may be robbed or otherwise harassed. Extortion has also been used to keep community groups in fear so that they will not seek prosecution for members of a criminal organization. However, individuals may also commit extortion, as may officials, especially in corrupt agencies or governments.
In order to prove charges of extortion, a prosecutor must be able to prove either that an illegal threat was made, or that goods or services were received in exchange for such a threat. Proving such charges can sometimes be very difficult, as people may be too intimidated to testify.

Topic27:

Write a composition on blackmail.
Typical Essay:
Blackmail is the crime of threatening to reveal damaging or embarrassing information in order to coerce money or other goods or forms of cooperation out of the victim. For blackmail to be effective, the blackmailer must, in most cases, have physical proof of the information he or she threatens to reveal, such as photographs or letters. Blackmail is often considered synonymous with extortion, and in this sense it may rely on a threat of action other than exposing the victim's secrets.
Some laws distinguish between blackmail and extortion, while others do not. Blackmail may be defined as extortion attempts in writing. Alternatively, blackmail may refer only to threats of action that is not illegal per se, such as revealing compromising photographs, while extortion relies on more active threats, such as physical harm.
The victim of blackmail is typically threatened with exposure of his or her private life, the consequences of which can range from embarrassing to socially devastating to legally damning. A blackmailer may threaten to expose the victim's extramarital affair, for example. Homosexuals were often blackmailed in the past, though this is less common as alternative sexualities are increasingly more accepted. At its most serious, blackmail may rest on the exposure of a serious crime, which would do infinitely more damage to the victim than complying with the blackmailer. Even secret information that is not of a criminal nature, however, can make the victim of blackmail feel that he or she has no recourse against the crime.
A relatively new form of blackmail, more similar to extortion, is known as commercial blackmail. In this crime, a business is the victim. The blackmailer threatens an action which would be devastating to the company's sales or reputation and typically demands a large payment. The perpetrator may, for example, threaten to interfere with the company's ability to conduct Internet sales. In a recent case of commercial blackmail in Australia, the blackmailer claimed to have poisoned a small random selection of the victim's candy bar products.

Topic28:

Write a composition on child labour.

Typical Essay:

Any child under the age specified by law worldwide works full time, mentally or physically to earn for own survival or adding to family income, that interrupts childs social development and education is called child labour. It is any kind of work children are made to do that harms or exploits them physically, mentally, morally, or by preventing access to education.

However, one must also understand that all work is not bad or exploitive for children. In fact, certain jobs help in enhancing the overall personality of the child. For instance, children delivering newspapers prior to going to school. Or then children taking up light summer jobs that do not interfere with their school timings. When they are given pocket money earning oriented tasks, they understand the value of money, as well as respect it even more.

While this are the positive aspects of tasks and working, the actual universal problem of child labour is the exploitive and dangerous work and working conditions children are put through. For instance, in north India young children, below the age of 14 are made to work in the carpet industry. Their delicate fingers create the world’s finest and most expensive carpets. The children are working twelve to fourteen hours a day. Many lose their fingers. Some are starved. And a number die each year because of the torturous circumstances under which they are made to work.

This is a crime. There have been instances of so-called decent middle class, as well as upper-class people employing young children as domestic helpers. But, they are not working as helpers, but bonded labour. They are made slaves. Frightening stories of how they have been physically tortured are printed in the daily newspapers. And in spite of stringent action being taken against such employers, the problem continues.

Wriiten Expressions
Topic56:

It was only thanks to the astronomers that the world all around is well-known to us. Discuss.

Typical Essay:
An astronomer is a person who studies, classifies, and describes the phenomena of the heavens. The astronomer has been one of the most important roles in the modern scientific world, with some of the great leaps in methodology coming from the realm of astronomy. In the modern day, there are not many who identify as an astronomer, with the American Astronomical Society having less than 7,000 members, for example. Nonetheless, the concept of astronomer continues to fascinate the public as a romantic figure gazing skyward.
One of the most well-known people to bear the name astronomer was the 16th century astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus developed a heliocentric model of our solar system, placing the sun at the center and the Earth orbiting it, and in doing so turned most of the predominant world views of the time on their heads. Although a heliocentric model had been put forth by various brilliant minds from the world of Islam, India, and Greece, Copernicus laid his out in the West in such a way that it was impossible for the world to ignore.
Not long after Copernicus, the astronomer Galileo Galilei expanded on Copernicus’ views. He made the telescope substantially more effective than it had been, allowing the astronomer to make much more detailed observations, including viewing craters on the moon, sunspots, and four of the moons of Jupiter. Galileo was a devout Catholic, and in fact traveled to Rome to show the moons of Jupiter to the Jesuit Collegio Romano as evidence of the Copernican heliocentric model. The Church rejected Galileo’s views, and eventually found him highly suspected of heresy and placed under house arrest.
Sir Isaac Newton, in addition to his many other accomplishments, was an influential astronomer. Many of his observations led him to develop some of his grand theories of motion, gravitation, and physical dynamics. Edmond Halley, an 18th century astronomer, conceived of a theory of orbits for comets. He used this theory to predict a comet in 1682, which would eventually be named in his honor, as Halley’s Comet.
One of the fundamental historical distinctions of an astronomer is his or her reliance on observation to come up with theories. It is likely for this reason that the astronomer is such a romantic figure for most people. The heavens at night are awe inspiring for most, and a lifetime spent gazing into them and trying to plumb their mysteries is one that appeals to many. Although the romantic ideal of a wizened old man with his eye to a telescope may no longer truly exist, it has nonetheless inspired generation after generation to become excited about science.
In the modern age, two wonderful things have happened for the field of astronomy: quality has gone up, and price has gone down. This has allowed for a whole new wave of astronomers to crop up, but these are often amateurs. With a relatively small investment now, anyone can be an astronomer. In fact, some important discoveries over the past two decades have been by those who are far from professional astronomers. As technology continues to improve, it is likely that the role the amateur astronomer plays in identification of celestial phenomena with only increase.
Topic57:

Write a composition on the solar system.

Typical Essay:

The Solar System is made up of all the planets that orbit our Sun. In addition to planets, the Solar System also consists of moons, comets, asteroids, minor planets, and dust and gas.
Everything in the Solar System orbits or revolves around the Sun. The Sun contains around 98% of all the material in the Solar System. The larger an object is, the more gravity it has. Because the Sun is so large, its powerful gravity attracts all the other objects in the Solar System towards it. At the same time, these objects, which are moving very rapidly, try to fly away from the Sun, outward into the emptiness of outer space. The result of the planets trying to fly away, at the same time that the Sun is trying to pull them inward is that they become trapped half-way in between. Balanced between flying towards the Sun, and escaping into space, they spend eternity orbiting around their parent star.
How Did The Solar System form?
This is an important question, and one that is difficult for scientists to understand. After all, the creation of our Solar System took place billions of years before there were any people around to witness it. Our own evolution is tied closely to the evolution of the Solar System. Thus, without understanding from where the Solar System came from, it is difficult to comprehend how mankind came to be.
Scientists believe that the Solar System evolved from a giant cloud of dust and gas. They believe that this dust and gas began to collapse under the weight of its own gravity. As it did so, the matter in this could begin moving in a giant circle, much like the water in a drain moves around the center of the drain in a circle.
At the center of this spinning cloud, a small star began to form. This star grew larger and larger, as it collected more of the dust and gas that were collapsing into it.
Further away from the star that was forming in the center were smaller clumps of dust and gas that were also collapsing. The star in the center eventually ignited forming our Sun, while the smaller clumps became the planets, minor planets, moons, comets, and asteroids.

Topic58:

Many theories were formulated about the creation of the world. Choose one and discuss it.
Typical Essay:

In fact, it is difficult for scientists to understand how our world was created. After all, the creation of our world took place billions of years before there were any people around to witness it. Our own evolution is tied closely to the evolution of the Solar System. Thus, without understanding from where the Solar System came from, it is difficult to comprehend how mankind came to be.
Scientists believe that our world evolved from a giant cloud of dust and gas. They believe that this dust and gas began to collapse under the weight of its own gravity. As it did so, the matter in this could begin moving in a giant circle, much like the water in a drain moves around the center of the drain in a circle.
At the center of this spinning cloud, a small star began to form. This star grew larger and larger, as it collected more of the dust and gas that were collapsing into it.
Further away from the star that was forming in the center were smaller clumps of dust and gas that were also collapsing. The star in the center eventually ignited forming our Sun, while the smaller clumps became the planets, minor planets, moons, comets, and asteroids.

Topic59:

Suppose a comet collided with the earth. Write a composition predicting the consequences of such a collision.

Typical Essay:

For the most part, a comet is an object in the solar system that orbits the sun sometimes has a coma (or atmosphere) and a tail. These characteristics are added mostly because of the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's nucleus (the nucleus is made of rock, dust, ice, etc.).
The interesting thing is that comets' orbits are highly variable. First, they are almost always highly affected by close calls with major planets, sometimes even being moved into orbits that destroy them due to their nearness to the Sun. One of the reasons why comets are so easily moved is because the outgassing that creates their comas and tails propels them in mysterious and unpredictable ways. But if a comet collided with the earth, what would happen then?
If the comet were small enough (and we survived), probably something similar to the situation on the 15th of April 1815, when volcanic eruptions of Mount Tambora ejected immense amounts of volcanic dust into the upper atmosphere, would happen." The year of 1816 (the year after) was often referred to as the Year Without a Summer.

This is because so much dust, from only one volcano, blocked out so much sunlight that several people froze to death and crops around the world died. Prices for food skyrocketed and it caused a major problem in economy.

The meteor that hit the Earth and resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs probably kicked up 100 times to 1000 times as much dust as this volcano explosion.

So the consequences of such a supposed collision really depend on the size of the comet. The bigger it is, the more devastating its outcomes are.

Topic60:

Write a composition on the importance of astronomy.

Typical Essay:
Astronomy is the study of celestial objects, phenomena, and origins. One of the oldest sciences, astronomy has been practiced since prehistoric times. Modern astronomy depends highly on accepted physical theories, such as Newton's Laws of Motion and general relativity. In the past, astronomy was something anyone could do, and many seers and sages made reputations for themselves by using the stars for useful functions, such as telling what time of the year it is, or navigating the seas. Columbus and his contemporaries used the stars to navigate across the Atlantic ocean.
It wasn't until the Renaissance that the theory of heliocentricity in astronomy, the idea that the Earth orbits the Sun rather than vice versa, began to acquire popular currency. Telescopes were invented in 1611 by Galileo Galilei, and he used his to take detailed observations of our Moon, which he revealed was mountainous, and observe Jupiter's four largest moons, now named the Galilean moons in his honor. Newton improved on Galileo's design, inventing the reflecting telescope, which is still used in optical telescopes to this day.
IN 1781, Sir William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus. In 1838, parallax — the slight difference in stellar position due to Earth's ******** in its orbit — was used to precisely determine the distance of stars. Neptune was discovered shortly thereafter. Pluto was discovered only as recently as 1930.
Modern astronomy is very complicated and expensive. Instead of only observing light rays, we observe radar, infrared, x-rays, and even cosmic rays. Orbital observatories such as the Hubble Space Telescope have produced the best images, include extremely high-resolution photographs of other galaxies.
In the mid-20th century, it was discovered that the universe was expanding. This, along with other evidence, led to the theory of the Big Bang, that the entire universe began as a point particle of extreme density. Later observations of the cosmic microwave background confirmed this, and the Big Bang continues as the primary theory of cosmological origins to this day.
The future of astronomy lies in the development of new observational technologies. One of interest is interferometry, sometimes called "hypertelescopes," which use a network of telescopes working cooperatively to resolve images. These could develop to the point where we can observe extrasolar planets with telescopes directly, instead of just detecting

Topic61:

Galileo is often called “the Father of Observational Astronomy”. Discuss.

Typical Essay:
Galileo Galilei was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher who has been called “the Father of Modern Science”. Born on 15 February 1564 in Pisa, Italy, Galileo is known for greatly improving the telescope from only 3X magnification to 32X magnification, discovering the moons of Jupiter, observing hills and valleys on the Moon, discovering and analyzing sunspots, popularizing laws of motion for uniformly accelerated objects, making the compound microscope practical, being one of the first to understand sound frequency, and being one of the most ardent advocates of the theory of heliocentrism. Galileo was among the first people in Europe to practice rigorous scientific standards, setting up formal experiments and describing the results using mathematics.
Galileo is probably best known for his advocacy of heliocentrism, the idea that the Earth orbits the Sun rather than vice versa. This was known as the Copernican theory after its inventor, Nicolaus Copernicus. Galileo based his support of Copernicanism after his observations of the satellites of Jupiter – this was the first discovery of celestial bodies that did not supposedly orbit the Earth. If the satellites of Jupiter orbited Jupiter, then could not the Earth orbit the Sun? Unfortunately, this idea was condemned as heresy, and Galileo was put on trial under the Inquisition in 1633. Narrowly avoiding imprisonment, Galileo was put under house arrest until his death in 1642 at age 77.
Galileo is famed for independently creating his own telescope after merely hearing about the concept while visiting Venice in 1608. The basic concept is simple – the combination of a concave and convex lens – but the telescope had only been invented that very year, by Dutch spectacle makers. In March 1610, Galileo published his initial astronomical observations in a short work entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).
There is a legend that Galileo dropped objects off the Leaning Tower of Pisa as a way of testing the different speeds at which they fell, but this was more likely a thought experiment. In reality, Galileo performed similar experiments with inclined planes that led to the same conclusion. The conclusion, contrary to the Aristotlean wisdom which had held for over a thousand years before, was that objects fall at the same speed regardless of their weight. Heavier objects are just often larger, and therefore slightly more susceptible to air friction. Galileo was not the first modern thinker to realize this, but he played a crucial role in popularizing it.
Because of all his contributions to physics, engineering, and astronomy, Galileo is often called “the Father of Observational Astronomy,” “the Father of Modern Physics,” and other such titles. His basic insights about physics are taught in high schools worldwide.

Topic62:

Long ago, astronomers spotted a galaxy far away and wondered why it was giving birth to so many stars. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

A galaxy is a cluster of stars, nebulae, dark matter, and other astronomical objects. Most galaxies are tens of thousands of light years in diameter, and contain billions of stars. Galaxies come in three primary shapes; spiral galaxies are thin disks, with spiral arms surrounding a central hub; elliptical galaxies are uniform, oval-shaped agglomerations; and irregular galaxies have little or no definite structure.
A spiral galaxy centers around a hub, which is roughly spherical and bulges outward from the disk. The hub is the gravitational center of the galaxy, and usually contains a supermassive black hole. Surrounding the hub are spiral arms, which are bunched-up waves of stars and gas orbiting the center. The spiral arms usually have more gas and dust, and they contain most of the newly formed stars, which make them appear blue in color imagery. A spiral galaxy may have a horizontal bar passing through its hub; our own galaxy, the Milky Way, is believed to contain a bar.
Elliptical galaxies have a large, central hub, but they lack the arms of a spiral galaxy; they usually appear more yellowish in color imagery from old, reddish stars. Irregular galaxies often have no discernible structure, but often they can be recognized as having a distorted spiral or elliptical shape. Elliptical and irregular galaxies often result from collisions, which cause large bursts of star formation and distort the galaxies' structure due to the complex gravitational interactions. Eventually, the two galaxies usually merge to form one large galaxy, which has cast off most of its gas and dust clouds.
There are roughly a hundred billion galaxies in the visible universe; most of them occur in large agglomerations called galaxy superclusters. Between these superclusters are voids with few or no galaxies, often for a hundred million light years or more. By studying the rotation of spiral galaxies, astronomers found that most of the matter in the universe is not stars and gas, but invisible “dark matter” which cannot be seen but still exerts gravity. Dark matter is thought to be responsible for these large clusters, as the gravitational attraction of the dark matter pulled galaxies together.

Topic63:

Unlike the other small bodies in the solar system, comets have been known since antiquity. Discuss.
Typical Essay:
A comet is a small astral body, similar in construction to a planet. A comet may have an unusual orbit, which may at times bring the comet close to the sun and make it visible to the naked eye, or through relatively low strength telescopes. When such a comet can be viewed it is usually noted as having a tail, made of gasses, which early astronomers often mistook for a shooting star.
Most observable comets in our solar system derive from the Oort Cloud, a hypothesized cloud made up of leavings from the sun. These materials form comets, which orbit the sun because are then affected by the gravitational pull of the sun and other planets. While passing by individual planets, the comet may be affected by the gravitational forces of the planets, thus causing an elliptical or oval-type orbit.
Usually, people on earth see a comet when the comet passes in between earth and the sun. It is thought that the comet and its tail, sometimes called the coma and tail, reflect the light of the sun, enhancing visibility. Since comets may orbit the sun in such strange patterns, people may only see the passage of one comet in a lifetime.
In fact, comets are usually classed by the length of time it takes them to orbit the sun. A short period comet takes about 200 years or less to make a full trip around the sun. A long period comet may take far more than 200 years to complete a trip.
For example Halley’s Comet can be viewed on earth about every 75 years. This marks it as a short period comet. Its last sight on earth was in 1986, and it is expected to be seen again in 2061.
A planet may capture a comet and the result can cause significant damage to the comet. Such a gravitational capture may result in the comet breaking into many small pieces, and these smaller pieces can then break off from the comet and hit the capturing planet. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, was observed as broken in 1993, and astronomers were able to witness it hitting the atmosphere of Jupiter in 1994.
Most often people looking at the night sky may think that they see “falling stars” which are actually meteors or comets. There are thousands of tiny comets that do not attract much interest. The once in a lifetime comet like Halley’s are often thought of as exciting, since most people will only see them with the naked eye once.
Topic64:

Most people looking at the night sky may think that they see “falling stars” which are actually meteors or comets. Discuss the difference between a meteor and a comet.

Typical Essay:

There are quite a few objects in the universe capable of causing a really, really bad day on planet Earth, including a wayward comet or large asteroid. Most meteors, however, barely rate a 'ho-hum' on an astronomer's scale of scary extraterrestrial events. There are a number of differences between a comet and a meteor, from their general composition to the roles they play in the universe.
A comet is a celestial object believed to be composed primarily of space dust and frozen gases. The birthplace of a comet is thought to be somewhere in the outer parts of the universe, not related to the formation of our solar system at all. A comet follows an orbit that may bring it close to a star, such as our own Sun. As the comet approaches the star, a portion of its ice core may melt and release a trail of dust-sized particles. This cycle can continue for millions of years.
A meteor, on the other hand, does not follow an orbit around the sun. It isn't even called a meteor while it remains floating in outer space – it's called a meteoroid. Only when it enters the Earth's atmosphere is it considered a true meteor.
When the Earth passes through a comet trail or debris field, individual meteoroids hit or skip across the first layers of the atmosphere. Observers on Earth may be fortunate enough to see the last few seconds of a meteor's existence as it streaks across the sky and burns up. Unlike a comet, a meteor will not return a number of years later.
A comet rarely passes within a few million miles of the Earth, while a meteor by its very definition must strike the first layers of the Earth's atmosphere. A comet's arrival can be predicted with some degree of accuracy, but a meteor can enter the Earth's atmosphere at any time of the day or night. A comet can rarely be seen by the naked eye, but during a meteor shower, it is not unusual to see dozens or even hundreds of meteors within a few hours.
A comet also receives an official name for identification, such as Swift-Tuttle, Hale-Bopp or Halley's Comet. A few large asteroids may receive identifying names as well, but meteors do not. Virtually all meteors cease to exist once they've entered the Earth's atmosphere. A rare few make it to the ground, however. Once a meteor has made contact with the Earth's surface, it becomes known as a meteorite. While a comet may be composed of space dust, organic materials and ice, most meteors contain elemental ****ls, such as iron, along with inorganic minerals such as quartz.

Topic65:

Cosmologists and astronomers predicted an expanding universe. Discuss.

Typical Essay:
Ever since Einstein's theory of general relativity was applied to what is known about the universe as a whole, it has been suspected that the universe was expanding. When Edwin Hubble and Milton Humason discovered in the 1920s that practically all galaxies in the sky were moving away from us at great speeds, this boosted suspicions that the universe was expanding at a rapid rate. Yet it was not until 2000 that decisive evidence was finally found in favor of the universe's expansion, in the form of extensive redshift surveys of very distant objects.
The expanding universe is often cited as the most significant finding in modern cosmology. In Einstein's time, the steady-state theory was the predominant one, which stated that the universe remained balanced at the same size. Einstein, whose equations predicted universal expansion or contraction but not stasis, artificially introduced a stabilizing variable into his equations, called the "cosmological constant." After realizing from Hubble's observations that the universe was likely expanding, he later called this his "greatest blunder."
The phenomenon that first led cosmologists and astronomers to predict an expanding universe was Hubble's analysis of redshift. Using the Mount Wilson Observatory, which was the best telescope in the world at the time, Hubble viewed distant galaxies and saw they looked progressively redde. He looked further away in space, and by extension, further back in time as well, as light takes many billions of years to travel from these galaxies to Earth. Because the redness factor correlated so well with increases in distance, Hubble suspected this was a reliable phenomenon with a physical cause.
The cause was determined to be as follows: as the universe expands, the underlying space increases in volume, but the light traveling through it remains the same. The expanding space stretches out the wavelength of the light, making it longer and thereby redder. An analogy sometimes used is dots on the surface of an expanding balloon. Draw a wave pattern on a balloon, and while you blow it up, notice how the wave stretches out and becomes longer. This is the same principle behind the phenomenon of redshift.
In 1998, it was discovered not only that the universe is expanding, but that it is likely expanding at an accelerating rate. The physical reason for this is chalked up to a mysterious "dark energy," so named because we barely know a thing about it.

Topic66:

Satellites facilitated space research. Discuss what a satellite is.

Typical Essay:

A satellite can be defined as any object, either manmade or naturally occurring, that orbits around something else. For example, the moon orbits around Earth and is thus a satellite. The Earth orbits around the sun and is a satellite of the sun. Other examples of naturally occurring satellites include comets, stars, asteroids, and other planets.
Orbit is determined by the gravitational pull of the object around which the satellite circles. The thing around which a satellite circles is called the primary object. However, primary objects are also affected by their satellites, and feel some of their gravitational pull. In some cases, when two objects have a similar size and weight (mass), and a similar gravitational pull, they may be called binary systems, rather than being called a primary object and a satellite. Some argue that Pluto’s moon Charon, and Pluto, represent a binary system instead of a primary object and satellite, since both have similar mass.
Most are more familiar with the term satellite in relationship to the many satellites that circulate the earth. Sputnik was the first artificial satellite, launched in 1957 by the Soviet Union. The launching of Sputnik is almost analogous for the beginning of the Space Race that followed between the US and the USSR. In today’s climate, however, many countries have found that a cooperative effort is more successful in space exploration and studies. The International Space Station, a satellite that orbits earth, is currently the largest manmade satellite in Space, and represents the cooperative effort of numerous countries.
Manmade satellites are classified by types, and there are over ten types. Some of the main types of satellite used today include astronomical satellites, communication satellites, earth observation satellites, weather satellites and space stations. Other types of satellites include those used to monitor earth from a military standpoint, and biosatellites, which may carry animals or other lifeforms for the purpose of research on earth lifeforms in space. Navigational satellites are now popular and form a vital part of the global positioning system (GPS) now available in many cars.
Satellites may also be classified by the height at which they orbit earth or another body. A low earth orbit circles the earth at a height of 0-1240 miles (1995.59 km). High earth orbits can be as far away as 22,240 miles (35,791.81 km). Medium earth orbits represent the distance in between high and low earth orbits. Further distinctions exist to describe the type of orbit a manmade or natural satellite has. For example, Pluto has a slightly elliptical orbit. Also a satellite is often classed by what primary object it orbits. A satellite that circles the Earth has a geocentric orbit, for example. The earth, and the planets in our solar system are classed as having a heliocentric orbit since they circle the sun.
A manmade satellite can serve many purposes. We currently use many different types of satellite systems to track things like weather, to make our cellphones work, to find out how to get somewhere and to gather more information about earth, and about the galaxy. About 5000 manmade satellites currently orbit earth, and on clear dark nights, it’s often possible to see one in the night sky. Of course, viewing a planet, the stars, or comets is also viewing a satellite. We also must remember,

we live on a satellite, and are not stationary in the sky.

Topic67:

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) contributed much to astronomy. Discuss.
Typical Essay:
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an American government agency which runs the civilian arm of the space program. The aim of NASA is to increase human understanding of the solar system and the universe that contains it, and to improve American aeronautics ability. Under its charter, NASA is supposed to be a peacetime agency that does not perform military functions, although NASA does cooperate with the military, and many NASA employees have a military background. To achieve this goal, NASA has an annual budget which can be counted in the billions to fund programs and pay tens of thousands of employees.
NASA was founded in 1958, in response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957. The early years of the organization were driven by Cold War competitiveness, and NASA quickly worked on creating rockets which would allow for manned spaceflight. NASA astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were the first humans known to have set foot on the moon in 1969, an action that was considered a major victory for American aeronautics. Riding on this early success, NASA continued development of aeronautic equipment designed to function outside the Earth's atmosphere.
After the moon landing, NASA focused on doing research around the solar system, sending an assortment of manned flights to the moon to collect material for study, and unmanned drones to other planets to collect data. These flights have collected large amounts of data which are constantly being added to and analyzed. Scientific advancement is a large part of NASA's mission. With the assistance of the agency, scientists have been able to conduct experiments in the zero gravity environment of space, and test hypotheses about the universe.
NASA also continues to work on a space shuttle program to make space more accessible. As of 2007, the space shuttle had made 112 flights with astronauts from many nations including the United States, and two of these flights, the Challenger and Columbia, were lost. NASA plans to resume manned flights to the moon by 2020, after safety improvements have been made to the space shuttle.
As part of its mission as a peaceful agency, NASA cooperates with agencies within the United States and international aeronautics agencies. A NASA astronaut can usually be found on board the International Space Station, and astronauts from other nations are invited to participate in NASA events. This fostering of international cooperation will hopefully continue as humans explore space and the possibility of off-Earth human settlements becomes possible.

Topic68:

Cosmologists and astronomers predicted an expanding universe. Discuss.

Typical Essay:
Space travel is a form of travel in which passengers enter space, the vast region outside the protective envelope of the Earth's atmosphere. Space starts 62 miles (100 kilometers) above the Earth's crust, at a point called the Karman Line, and it continues for a distance which appears to be infinite, interrupted periodically by celestial bodies such as stars, planets, and so forth. Humans have long had romantic associations with space travel, with people considering space “the final frontier,” as they famously say on Star Trek.
Humans have been intrigued by the night sky for centuries, tracking the movements of stars, planets, comets, and other features in the sky and pondering the mysteries of the heavens. In the 20th century, the fascination with space took on a whole new level of excitement when humans successfully launched manned spacecraft out of the Earth's atmosphere, putting astronauts in space and on the Moon. With the proof that manned spaceflight was possible, the concept of space travel began to seem less like a pipe dream and more like a reality, and private companies began to enter the field, developing space planes and offering commercial flights.
In the 20th century, space travel was restricted to astronauts who worked for various governments, and it was primarily performed for research purposes. Space travel allowed people to collect samples from the Moon, maintain space telescopes such as the Hubble Telescope, and eventually to perform research on the International Space Station, a structure which orbits the Earth and houses astronauts from several nations at any given time.
While space travel for research is certainly admirable and important, many people are more interested in the potential for space travel as a form of recreation, tourism, or exploration. Civilians began purchasing tickets for tourist flights into space in the early 2000s, sometimes going on brief suborbital flights in which they barely entered space, and sometimes spending several days in space, exploring the International Space Station and enjoying the experience of being in space.
The potential for space travel is infinite, just like the universe, bounded only by human technology. Many people hope that the dreams of science fiction, such as massive ships which can travel between galaxies, will someday be realized. Space travel could be used to explore the rest of the solar system and galaxy, learning more about the nature of the universe and potentially leading to a discovery of life beyond the boundaries of Earth.

Topic69:

We are living in a universe still being discovered. Discuss how big our universe is.

Typical Essay:
The current, observable universe has been determined to have a width of 156 billion light years, with an error of less than 1%, by the latest deep-space telescope WMAP. At first, it might seem impossible that scientists are so sure of this astronomical measurement, but this figure has been narrowed by years of research and determined by several paths of inquiry. Also, the size of the universe is intimately dependent on its shape, age, acceleration, and total mass, so we are very confident in this figure.
In 2003, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe sent back enough data for scientists to publish extremely dependable studies that established two previously unknown facts about the universe. They determined our universe is flat, which means standard Euclidean geometry is valid on the largest scale. This can be understood by saying a straight line more or less stays a straight line for as long as it extends. They also established that the universe is accelerating at an ever-increasing rate, which means that all mass is flying away from each other at faster and faster speeds. The WMAP data measured the temperature, called the cosmic microwave background radiation, of our observable universe with an unprecedented accuracy, to within a 5% error. From these facts, we can deduce figures such as the radius of the universe.
Remember that the size of the universe is not a constant value, nor is it the size of an object as we traditionally understand it. The size of the universe is actually the size of space itself, and as space expands, so does the space between planets, stars, and galaxies. At the beginning of the universe, the Big Bang created space and time as we know them. From that moment, space has been expanding, so we find its size by measuring how far light could have traveled since the Big Bang, along with how much space itself stretched.
We can only possibly look or communicate up to the edge, or "horizon," of where light has traveled since the beginning of the universe. The size of the universe means the space in which we can interact with anything. We will never ever know what is "beyond" this boundary, because there is no way to know anything about it, so it's illogical to consider the realm "outside" of our universe, or to wonder what we are expanding "into."
An independent measure of the size of our universe can be given by studying the oldest stars. The oldest stars we have found are probably somewhere between 11 and 14 billion light years old. If we had stars older than the largest distance light could have traveled, then we'd know there was something wrong with our calculations; there would not be enough time for them to evolve. However, these values are consistent with everything else we know about the universe.